Psych 104 Second Half
Chapter 4
Module 4.1
Consciousness
Continuous stream of thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions
Kind of like an iceberg
Altered States of Consciousness
Mental states other than ordinary waking consciousness
Sleep, meditation
Hypnosis or drug induced state
Concentration or suggestion
Circadian Rhythms
Controlled by the brain
Within each 24 hours period, high to low points of bodily functions
Ex: blood pressure, heart rate, appetite, hormones, digestive enzymes, sensory acuity, elimination
Ultradian Rhythms
More than once a day
Hunger patterns, eyeblinks, heartbeats
Infradian Rhythms
Cycle exceeds 24-hour pattern
Female menstrual cycle
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SC N)
Small structure in hypothalamus of brain
Acts as biological clock
Responds to amount of light
Photoreceptors in eye, relay light information via optic nerves to SC N
SC N signals Pineal gland to secrete Melatonin
Melatonin induces sleepiness
Jet Lag
Biological clock synchronized with usual time zone, not new one
Difficult to sleep when biological clock tells you wake up, feel alert
Chronic jet lag can produce memory deficits that may be permanent
Shift Work
Rotating shifts and irregular schedules most common
2.3 million full-time Canadian workers
Disruption in rhythms of bodily functions can cause variety of physical and psychological problems
Also can affect biological clock
Subjective Night
Lowest body temperature in a 24 hr. Period
Biological clock gives a sleep message
Energy efficiency at lowest point
Problems with work
Slowest reaction time, less productivity
Job stress increases
Likeliness of a full 8hr sleep unlikely
Our bodies are synchronized to daytime
Sometimes to combat will take 20-30 min naps when body temp is at lowest
5-8 pm highest body temp, 4-5 am lowest
Module 4.2
We sleep about 25 hours of our lives
Like when our computers get wonky if we don’t restart them
Restorative
No really scientific explanation of what happening in sleep till about 1950’s
NREM Sleep
“Non-rapid eye movement” or quiet sleep
Heart rate and respiration slow, regular
Little body movement
Blood pressure, brain activity at lowest points of 24 hour period
4 stages
REM Sleep
“Rapid eye movement” or active sleep
Paralysis of large muscles (arms, legs, trunk)
Fast, irregular heart and respiration rate
Increased brainwave activity
Vivid dreams
20-25% of adult sleep
Muscles are very calm but everything else is kinda going haywire/being activated
Figure 4.1
Sleep Cycles
Last about 90 minutes
Typical night, 1,2,3,4,3,2,REM
After REM period, first cycle of sleep complete
Begin cycle again
Go directly from REM into Stage 2 sleep
Typical night sleep, 5 sleep cycles (1.5 hours slow wave sleep, 1.5 hours REM)
Stage 1 (light sleep)
Transition between waking to sleeping
Stage 2
50% of sleep occurs; somewhat deeper than Stage 1
Stage 3 (deep sleep)
Slow-wave sleep; delta waves (slow waves)
Stage 4
Deepest sleep, lasts 40 minutes; more than 50% delta waves, hardest to wake up
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Individual Differences in Sleep
Infants and Young Children
Longest sleep time
Highest percentage of REM and deep sleep
Middle Childhood (age 6 - puberty)
Fall asleep easily, sleep 8.5 to 9 hrs; awake, alert during day
Teenagers
Average 7.6 hours sleep (older teens <7 hours)
Most need 2 more hours to be alert for school
Adults
During aging, quality, quantity of sleep decreases
More difficulty falling asleep, lighter sleep
Larks and Owls
Larks (25% of people)
Body temperature rises until 7:30 pm; early to bed
More difficulty with night shifts
Owls (25% of people)
Body temperature rises gradually through day, drops in evenings
REM Sleep Deprivation
Microsleeps
2-3 second sleeps, due to deep sleep deprivation
REM Rebound
Increased amount of REM sleep, due to REM deprivation from; sleep loss, alcohol, illness
Associated with unpleasant dreams, nightmares
Function of REM Sleep
Necessary for maturation of brain in infants
Aids in information processing, learning and memory consolidation
May help form new synapses in brain
Dreaming
REM Dreams
Vivid dreams we remember
Continuous during each REM period
NREM Dreams
Mental activity during NREm sleep
More thought-like in quality
where you kinda manipulate your dreams
Table 4.1
Module 4.3
Variations in Sleep
Factors such as genetics, mood and stress levels affect how much sleep individuals need
Studies indicate that there is a limit to how little sleep we can tolerate
Seems that most people need a minimum of 6.5 hours of sleep
At least one third of the population is sleep deprived
Short Sleepers
20% of population
Less than 6 hours sleep
Long Sleepers
10% of population
More than 9 hours sleep
Parasomnias
Parasomnia
Sleep disturbances
Behaviours, physiological states normally occur in waking state occur during sleep state
Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
Eyes open, blank stare
Shuffle, poor coordination, speech is unintelligible
Happens during stage 3
A lot is genetic
Increased amount of slow wave sleep
Sleep Terror
Often begins with piercing scream, panic; lasts 5-15 minutes
Often no memory of episode
Becomes less common in adolescents
Happens in stage 4 - slow wave sleep
Usually physiological
Nightmares
Frightening dreams during REM sleep towards the morning
Usually called by illness, high anxiety, not proper sleep, etc
More psychological/emotional
Sleeptalking (somniloquy)
Occurs during any sleep stage
More frequent in children
Not really any evidence that it relates to anything
Major Sleep Disorders
Debilitating, affect person’s entire life
Disorders include: narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and insomnia
Narcolepsy = incurable sleep disorder
Excessive daytime sleepiness
Uncontrollable attacks of REM sleep that usually last 10-20 minutes
Physiological disorder, abnormality in part of brain that regulates sleep
Sleep Apnea = breathing stops during sleep
Individual must awaken briefly to breathe
Physiological disorder but affects in psychological sense
Severe can lead to high blood pressure, chronic heart problems or even death
Usually medication to help with it like CPAP machine
Insomnia = difficulty falling or staying asleep
Sleep is light, restless, or poor quality
13.4% of Canadians over age 15
Temporary - lasts about 3 weeks, stress, brief illness or injury
Chronic - lasts for months/years, caused by illnesses or autoimmune disease or reaction to psychological or medical problem
Medication if very severe
Module 4.4
Meditation
Focus attention on object, word, breathing, or body movement to block out all distractions
Altered state of consciousness
Yoga, zen, transcendental meditation (TM)
Helps people who are severely depressed and help regulate emotion
Hypnosis
Trance-like state of concentrated and focused attention
Heightened suggestibility, diminished response to external stimuli
Suspend usual rational and logical ways of thinking and perceiving
Distortions in perceptions, memories, thinking
Aware of what is going on
Will not violate moral values
Cannot demonstrate superhuman strength or perform amazing feats
Memory is not more accurate
Will not reveal embarrassing secrets
Will not relive events
Not under complete control of hypnotist
Responses often automatic and involuntary
A hypnotized person is in a state of heightened suggestibility. A hypnotherapist may therefore be able to help someone control chronic pain or post-surgery pain
Medical Uses of Hypnosis
Used in medicine, dentistry, psychotherapy
Controls pain and side effects associated with cancer care
Moderate effect in weight control
Useless in overcoming drug and alcohol abuse, nicotine addiction
Module 4.5
Psychoactive Drugs
Alter normal mental functioning, mood, perception, thought
Controlled substances used medically
Drugs can trigger dopamine in brain’s limbic system, involved in reward and motivation
Table 4.2
Drug Dependence
Physical Drug Dependence
Compulsive drug use
Drug tolerance higher more you use it
Unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
Sense of euphoria gets smaller and smaller over time
Drug Tolerance
User progressively less affected
Larger doses necessary to achieve, maintain same effect
Withdrawal Symptoms
Physical and psychological symptoms occur when drug discontinued
Terminates when drug taken again
Different location more likely overdose, body cannot brace itsef
Psychological Drug Dependence
Craving for drug’s pleasurable effects
Addictive Potential of Drug
Four factors influence addictive potential:
How quickly effects are felt
How pleasurable effects are
How long pleasurable effects last
How much discomfort when drug discontinued
Stimulants (Uppers)
Speed up central nervous system
Suppress appetite, feel more awake, alert, energetic
Legal stimulants: caffeine, nicotine
Controlled stimulants: amphetamines
Illegal stimulants: cocaine
Caffeine
World’s most widely used drug
Found in coffee, tea, cola, chocolate, energy drinks, drugs
Mental alertness increases
Stay awake, lifts mood
Nicotine
Nicotine is so toxic to the body that tolerance develops in hours in contrast to days or weeks for heroin
12% of Canadians smoke and 42% have tried to quit in the past year
Cigarette smoking is down but vaping has increased
Only 5% of Canadian teens use cigarettes but 15% vape
Amphetamines
Increases arousal
Relieves fatigue
Suppresses appetite
Gives energy
illegal : methamphetamine
Cocaine
From coca leaves
Sniffed, injected; crack form is smoked
Stimulates the reward center in brain
Produces euphoric high then a crash
Cocaine use in Canada is low, with 2% of Canadians reporting using it in the past year
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens
Sometimes called psychedelics
Alter perception and mood
Can cause hallucinations
Have been used in religious rituals and ceremonies in various cultures since ancient times
May or may not stimulate creativity - current research is divided on this question
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
“Trips” of 10-12 hours
Basically acid
Vivid hallucinations and distortions
Flashback = recurrence of trip
Ecstasy (MDMA)
Designer drug (cross between hallucinogen and stimulant)
Joyous state
Can impair cognitive functions
Analytical thinking is affected
Marijuana
In 2018 Canada became the second country (after Uruguay) to legalize cannabis for medical/recreational purposes
In 2021, 27% of Canadians reported using cannabis
Slows reaction time
Relaxation and giddiness
Perceptual distortions and hallucinations
THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) is main psychoactive ingredient
Depressants
Decrease activity in central nervous system (downers)
Slow down bodily functions
Reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation
Narcotics (opiates)
Depressing brain
Alcohol
Relaxes, then depresses CNS
Increases sexual arousal but decreases performance
Barbiturates (downers)
CNS depressant used as sedatives, sleeping pills (phenobarbital)
Minor tranquilizers (benzodiazepines; Valium, Librium, Dalmane, Xanax)
Excessive use impair permanent and temporary memories
People suffering from extreme anxiety
Narcotics = from opium (morphine, codeine)
Narcotic = “stupor”
Relieves pain; calming effects
Heroin = derived from morphine, most addictive
Fentanyl = synthetic morphine 50 to 100 times stronger
Table 4.3
How Drugs Affect the Brain
Dopamine
Alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, marijuana, heroin, nicotine = increase dopamine
Dopamine affects nucleus accumbens in brain’s limbic system
Role in reinforcement and reward
Some drugs stimulate release of dopamine
Some drugs slow reuptake of dopamine
Endorphins
Opiates (morphine, heroin) mimic effects of brain’s own endorphins
Analgesic (pain-relieving) properties
GABA
Alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines (Valium, Librium) act on GABA receptors
GABA = inhibitory neurotransmitter
Slows CNS
Calming, sedating effect
If enough is released, completely shut down brain
Chapter 5
Module 5.1
Learning
Relatively permanent change in behaviour, knowledge, capability, or attitude
Acquired through experience
Not attributed to illness, injury, or maturation
Classical Conditioning
Powerful effect on attitudes, likes, dislikes, emotional responses
Spearheaded by Pavlov
Response previously made to specific stimulus, made to another
Association formed between two stimuli
Stimulus/Stimuli
Any event or object in environment to which organism response
Eg. sound, light, touch
Plural of stimulus = stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
1849 to 1936
Studied conditioned reflex in dogs
Involuntary response (salivation) associated with sights, sounds of feeding
Reflexes
Inborn, unlearned, automatic responses to environmental stimuli
Eg. swallowing, coughing, blinking, sucking, grasping
Unconditioned Reflex
Involuntary response to stimulus
Eg. eye blink to puff of air, salivation response to food
Conditioned Reflex
Learned involuntary responses
Unconditioned Response (U R)
Automatic, unlearned response to U S
Unconditioned Stimulus (U S)
Stimulus elicits U R
Conditioned Stimulus (C S)
Previously neutral stimulus
After repeated pairings with U S, produces C R
Manipulated stimulus
Conditioned Response (C R)
Learned response made to C S
Manipulated response
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Extinction
Weakening of learned response
Eventual disappearance of learned response
C S repeatedly presented without U S
Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes occurs after extinction
Occurs when C S presented again
C R reappears
Figure 5.3
Generalization
Conditioned response to stimulus similar to original C S
Eg. fear of dogs. After dog bite, do not just fear that dog but all dogs
Figure 5.4
Discrimination
Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli
C R only to original C S
Discrimination aids survival eg. learning the difference between a garter snake and a poisonous snake can save your life
Watson, Little Albert and Peter
Little Albert Experiment (1919)
Proved fear could be classically conditioned
Conditioned baby Albert to fear white rat
Little Albert learned to fear things resembling white rat (generalization)
Peter and fear removal:
Watson and Mary Cover Jones
Removing 3 year old Peter’s fear of rabbit
Systematic; had rabbit come closer while Peter ate candy
Peter grew fond of rabbit also lost fears of fur, feathers etc
Four Factors that influence Classical Conditioning:
Number of pairings of C S and U S
Intensity of U S
How reliably C S predicts U S
Temporal relationship between C S and U S
Contemporary Views
Cognitive Perspective
Critical element in classical conditioning not repeated pairing of C S and U S
Critical element = does C S enable prediction of U S
Biological Predisposition
Genetics or biologically based motivations
May prepare animals to acquire or resist classically conditioned responses
Humans fear stimuli that can harm
Survival response: taste aversion
Ex. Chemotherapy treatments can result in conditioned taste aversions, but providing patients with a “scapegoat” target for the taste aversion can help them maintain a proper diet
Classical Conditioning in Life
Fear Responses
Fears and phobias largely result from classical conditioning
Dental phobia if painful dental work
Can generalize anxiety to dental chair, waiting room, dentist’s office building
Drug Use
Environmental cues associated with drug use can become C S
Can produce C R of drug craving
Need higher doses for effects (tolerance)
Cues initiating protective mechanisms not present when same dose taken in unfamiliar surroundings (lead to overdose)
Classical conditioning helps explain why certain environmental cues or social situations can lead to continued drug use
Advertising
Products paired with people, objects, situations we like
We become conditioned to buy products
Sexual Arousal
Environmental cues (places, smells, clothing)
Can become associated with experiences
Can have role in experiences
Module 5.2
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Conditioning voluntary responses
Response comes first
Consequence tends to modify response in future
Consequences can increase, decrease, shape response
Reinforcers are rewards
Rewards increase response
Operant Conditioning
Shaping
Condition complex behaviour
Moulding desired behaviour
Reinforce successive approximations of desired response
Skinner Box used by B.F. Skinner to condition rats to press a food bar to obtain a reward (pellets or water)
Superstitious Behaviour
Believe connection exists between act and consequences
Mistake consequence for a cause
No relationship between act and consequences exists
Eg. gamblers blowing on dice, wearing same “lucky” shorts to each ballgame etc
Extinction
Reinforcers withheld
Can lead to frustration
Spontaneous recovery can occur after period of rest
Generalization
Learned response to stimulus similar to original stimulus
Discrimination
Learning to distinguish between stimulus reinforced and other similar stimuli
Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
Pleasant or desirable consequence added
Increases probability response will be repeated
Negative Reinforcement
Aversive condition or stimuli removed
Response likely to occur again because followed by ending aversive condition
Removal of unpleasant stimulus
Primary Reinforcers
Fulfill basic physical need for survival, unlearned
Food, water, sleep
Secondary Reinforcers
Acquired via association with other reinforcers
Money, praise, grades, awards
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforce every correct response
Most effective way to condition new response
Partial Reinforcement
Portion of correct responses are reinforced
Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement given after fixed number of correct responses
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement after varying number of correct responses
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reinforcement after specific time interval passed
Variable-Interval Schedule
Reinforcement after varying amount of time
Factors that influence Operant Conditioning
Magnitude of reinforcement
Immediacy of reinforcement
Level of motivation of learner
Figure 5.5
Punishment
Removal of a pleasant stimulus
Application of unpleasant stimulus
Lowers probability of response
Both tend to suppress a response
Most effective if during misbehaviour or immediately after
Minimum necessary to suppress behaviour
Apply consistently
Should not be done in anger
Have to teach what should be doing instead
Escape and Avoidance Learning
Escape Learning
Behaviour terminates aversive event
Eg. taking a painkiller for a pounding headache
Avoidance Learning
Avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes
Drinking and driving associated with car accidents and death
Learned Helplessness
Passive resignation to aversive conditions
Repeated exposure to aversive, inescapable, unavoidable events
Learner does not try to change, escape, avoid aversive conditions
Learn to stand helplessly and suffer punishment
trauma
Module 5.3
Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
LOOK IN NOTES APP
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Module 5.4
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Behaviour Modification
Changing behaviour through systematic program
Based on principles of learning
Token Economy
Motivates socially desirable behaviour
Reinforce with tokens
Tokens exchanged for desired items or privileges
Uses of Behaviour Modification
Business and Industry:
Increase profits, modify employee behaviour in health, safety, learning
Psychological Treatment:
Treatment of psychological problems from phobias to addiction
Behaviour therapy
Module 5.5
Observational Learning
Cognitive Processes
Mental processes: thinking, knowing, etc.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing and imitating behaviour
Monkey see, monkey do
Modelling/Model
Person who demonstrates behaviour
Person whose behaviour is imitated
The Bobo Doll Experiment (Albert Bandura)
Aggressive behaviour is subject to observational learning
Studied violence on television and possible link to aggression in children
Children influenced by exposure to aggressive models
Also influenced by prosocial behaviour
Exposure and reinforcement
Put kids in a room with a bobo doll, an adult would punch or kick the bobo doll, see and think that’s how to play with it. Another group, an adult would caress and be gentle with doll, kids would do the same
Positive vs aggressive behaviour
Experimental group = children observed aggressive adult with Bobo doll
Control group = observed non-aggressive model
Experimental group imitated aggression to doll
Control group = less aggression
Children do not process information about consequences like adults
Effects of childhood exposure to violence persists
Children imitate prosocial behaviour
Chapter 6
Module 6.1
Three Processes in Memory
Encoding
Transform information into form that can be stored in memory
Requires selective attention
Selective attention = focusing on relevant information, filtering out background interference
Storage
Maintaining information in memory
Requires consolidation. Sleep play important role in consolidating memories
Consolidation = physiological process in brain (hippocampus), forms permanent memory
Retrieval
Stored information is brought to mind
To remember, all three processes required (encoding, storage, retrieval
Memory failure can result from failure of any one of the three processes
Figure 6.1
Information Processing Approach
Information-Processing Approach
Mental structures and processes
Computer as model for human thinking
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Three memory systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Sensory Memory
Holds information from senses
Fraction of second to several seconds
Visual images = fraction of a second
Auditory info = two seconds
Figure 6.4
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Codes information in acoustic form
Can hold visual images
Can store information in semantic form (meaning)
Capacity
Seven (plus or minus two) bits of information
STM works less than 30 seconds
When full, displacement occurs
Displacement = new item entering STM pushes out existing item
Chunking
Grouping separate bits of information into larger units (chunks)
Bits of information made larger by chunking
Like with phone numbers
Rehearsal
Repeat information to maintain it in STM or transfer to LTM
Information kept in STM via rehearsal
STM as Working Memory
Working Memory
Component of broader system
Temporary storage structure and process
Mental workspace holding information from sensory memory or LTM
Erasable mental blackboard
Memory Strategies
Manipulate information to make remembering easier
Some strategies automatic
Some require effort
Rote rehearsal not best way to remember
Memorization not great, trying to understand it to a deeper level is better
Levels-of-processing Model
Single-memory-system model
Retention better for deeply processed information
“Shallow” processing (sound)
“Deep” processing (meaning) works better
Elaboration strategies: relate new information to LTM information
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Huge storehouse of permanent or relatively permanent memories
Unlimited capacity
Stores all our skills, knowledge and memories
Usually stored in semantic form
The two subsystems:
Declarative Memory (explicit)
Episodic memory contains memory of personal events
Semantic memory is for objective facts and information
Non-declarative Memory (implicit)
Motor skills, habits, classically conditioned responses
“Bless you” or “ouch”
Figure 6.5
Measuring Memory
Recall
Information without retrieval cues
Serial recall = recall in specific order
Recognition
Memory with retrieval cues
Multiple choice, matching
Relearning (savings method/score)
Measuring learning by using time it takes to relearn forgotten facts
Module 6.2
Memory as Permanent Record
Aristotle and Frued, had theories about the nature of memory
Wilder Penfield, a Canadian neurosurgeon, suggested the analogy that experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain as though they were recorded by a device
Memory as Reconstruction
Not exact replica of event
Bartlett = LTM distorts new memories
When people recall an event, they are actually reconstructing it from memory by piecing together bits of information that may or may not be totally accurate
The longer from event, the more areas
Schemas
Framework of knowledge, assumptions about people, objects, events
Affect encoding and information recall
We distort and ignore
Distortion
Alter memory to fit beliefs, expectations, logic, prejudices
Positive bias = need to distort memories in positive way
Need for emotional well-being
More likely to remember positive than negative
Eyewitness Testimony
Often subject to error
Composition of lineup important
Simultaneous lineup more accurate than sequential lineup
Showups versus lineups
With child witnesses, a recent “face-off” procedure is effective
Important do’s and don’ts when interviewing children
Hypnosis does not improve testament accuracy
Often give more information
Often more confident in responses
Recovering Repressed Memory
Connie Kristiansen calls repressed memory of abuse, dissociated memory (reflecting the trauma of such memories)
Currently there is more skepticism regarding repressed (dissociated) memories and their therapeutic retrieval
Such repressed memories (for example of abuse) may be valid but many expert urge that they should be verified independently
Unusual Memory Phenomena
Flashbulb Memory
Extremely vivid memory
Recall conditions when hear news of surprising, shocking, emotional event
“Where were you when 9/11 happened?”
Eidetic Imagery
Retaining image of visual stimulus for several minutes after out of view
Photographic memory
Like taking a snapshot of an image and being able to zoom on that image
Sits in short-term memory
Figure 6.6
Module 6.3
Serial Position Effect
Recall beginning and ending items in a sequence
Primacy Effect
Information at beginning of sequence
Recalled as already placed in LTM
Recency Effect
Information at end of sequence
Higher recall probability because still in STM
Environmental Context and Memory
Information easier to recall in same environmental context
Person in original environmental context as when learning material (retrieval cue)
Encoding specificity hypothesis
Figure 6.7
State-Dependent Memory
Easier to recall when in same state when learning occurred
Psychological state = mood
Pharmacological state = alcohol, drugs
Module 6.4
Brain Damage and Memory
Hippocampus
Brain area
Involved in processing LTM
Case of H.M. and a surgery in 1953 that removed key parts of his brain causing anterograde amnesia
Case of K.C. had an accident that erased his episodic memory but spared his semantic memory
Semantic memory is mental dictionary
Episodic memory is personal events
Figure 6.8
Neuronal Changes in Memory
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
Long-lasting increase in efficiency of neural transmission at synapses
Basis for learning and memory and neuronal level
Strengthens LTM
LTP common in hippocampus
Hormones and Memory
Strong memories fuelled by emotion
Emotional arousal = release epinephrine and norepinephrine (survival)
Imprint memories of threatening circumstances
Cortisol = in excess interferes with memory
Estrogen = improves working memory
Module 6.5
Figure 6.9
The Causes of Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Material not put into LTM
Decay Theory
Unused memories disappear with time
Inside out memories in storage
Interference
Old (proactive) or new (retroactive) information interferes with learning or recall
Figure 6.10
Consolidation Failure
Disruption in consolidation
Preventing permanent memory formation
Motivated Forgetting
Protect oneself from painful, frightening, unpleasant memories
Suppression, repression, amnesia
Retrieval Failure
Inability to locate information
Cannot retrieve LTM information
Prospective Forgetting
Forgetting to carry out action in future
Module 6.6
Improving Memory
Organization
Organize in a meaningful way for easier recall
Overlearning
Practice or study beyond where repeated once without error
We remember material better and more in detail if we overlearn
Spaced vs Massed Practice
Spacing studying effective (not last minute)
Massed practice = long learning practice session
Long term learning and studying is better
Active Learning vs Rereading
Active is best; connect new information to present knowledge
Mnemonic Devices
The First-Letter Technique (ROY G BIV)
The Method of Loci (place or location, associating certain things to a location)
The Keyword Method (good for people learning second language, try and find ques based off words)
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.12
Chapter 7
Module 7.1
Tools of Thinking
Cognition
Mental processes
Involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information
Imagery
Represent or picture a sensory experience in one’s mind
Neuroimaging: same areas of brain activated when using imagery or performing actual task
Mirror neurons activated when you perform action or watch someone perform action
Concepts
Label representing class or group of objects, people, events
Share common characteristics or attributes
Figure 7.1
Concept Formation
How do we acquire concepts? We can form concepts from:
Formal definition of concept
Memorizing concept’s common features
Experiences with positive and negative instances of concept
Through use of prototypes
Through use of exemplars
Prototype
Example that embodies most common features of concept
When you think of bird do you think of penguin(no)
More the general
Exemplar
Individual instances of concept
Stored concept in memory from experience
More specific to you
Decision Making
Decision Making
Process of considering alternatives
Choosing from among alternatives
Systematic Decision Making
Examining all possible alternatives; choosing most beneficial
Elimination by Aspects
Eliminate alternatives that do not match each factor e.g. when looking for an apartment, cost is most important followed by available parking
Eliminate all apartments which are too expensive then those with no parking
Heuristics
Rules of thumb
Derived from experience
Used in decision making and problem solving
Availability heuristic
Probability of event corresponds to ease which event comes to mind
Representativeness heuristic
Based on new situation resembling familiar one e.g. when buying a new car, you remember how happy you were with your first car in college so expect to enjoy the same model again
Recognition heuristic
Decisions terminate as soon as factor moving to decision recognized
Framing
Information emphasizes potential gain or loss
Intuition
“Gut feelings” or “instincts”
Anchoring
Focusing on single factor magnifies importance of factor relevant to other factors
Problem Solving
Trial and Error
Try one solution after another
Heuristics and Algorithms
Analogy heuristic: comparing problem to others from past
Working backwards (backward search): start with solution and work backward through problem
Means-end analysis: current position compared with desired goal; closed gap between two positions
Algorithm: systematic, step-by-step procedure guarantees solution to problem of certain type if executed properly
Impediments to Problems Solving
Functional Fixedness
Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems
Mental Set
Mental rut in solving problems
Continue using same old method even if another approach is better
Module 7.2
Creativity
Creativity
Produce original, appropriate, valuable ideas, solutions to problems
Divergent Thinking
Produce multiple ideas, answers, solution to problem
Novel ideas involving combination and synthesis of unusual associations
Tools to assess creativity
Remote Associates Test (RAT)
Tools that measure product of creative thought, more effective
Module 7.3
Language
Language
Thoughts, feelings, via system of socially shared, arbitrary symbols using rules of grammar
Psycholinguistics
How language acquired, produced, used
How sounds and symbols of language translated into meaning
The Structure of Language
1. Phonemes
Smallest units of sound. Represented by the sound they make e.g. the “c” in cat sounds like the / kat /
2.Morphemes
Smallest units of meaning
Syntax
Rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases, sentences
Semantics
Meaning derived from morphemes, words, sentences
Surface structure = literal words written, spoken, signed
Deep structure = underlying meaning of sentence
“What’s up?” difference in second language learners
Language Development
Cooing
Begins around 2-3 months
Vowel sounds like “ah” and “oo”
Babbling
Around 6 months
Phonemes such as “ma-ma-ma” or “ba-ba-ba”
Around 1 year baby’s babbling will start to resemble the sound of the language around them
One-Word Stage
Holophrases = one word as sentence
Overextension = apply word to broader range of objects than appropriate
Underextension = fail to apply word to other members of the class
Two-Word Stage and Telegraphic Speech
18-20 months
Vocabulary about 50 words
Telegraphic speech = short sentences following rigid word order
Suffixes, Function Words, Grammatical Rules
Overregularization = inappropriately applying grammatical rules for forming plurals and past tenses to irregular nouns and verbs
Theories of Language Development
Learning Theory; B.F. Skinner
Language shaped via rewards
Nativist Position: Noam Chomsky
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Innate; fixed order of learning; universal
Interactionist Perspective
Importance of learning and inborn capacity for acquiring language
Learn concrete language expressions they hear; imitate
Child-directed speech (motherese)
More Than One Language
Second Language Acquisition
Age of onset. A second language can be acquired at any age although early exposure may enhance the chances of sounding like a native speaker
Bilingual = fluent in two languages
Multilingual = fluent in any languages
Language loss = immigrant, minority and Indigenous Peoples in Canada, may experience that the dominance of French and English inhibits the acquisition and/or maintenance of and minority and heritage languages
Rich language support in early education can provide support for minority and heritage language acquisition and maintenance
Animal Language
Teaching chimpanzees to speak since 1933
ASL (American Sign Language) used to teach Washoe the Chimp
Chimp Sarah learned David Premack’s artificial language vi operant conditioning
Gorilla Koko adapted ASL and used online chatroom
Figure 7.2
Language and Thinking
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Benjamin Whorf said, spoken language determines thoughts
Eleanor Rosch’s experiments showed no significant differences between languages
Language and thought are mutually supportive
Module 7.4
Factors Underlying Intelligence
Charles Spearman
Observed people bright in one area usually bright in other areas
General ability (g factor) underlying all intellectual functions
Other abilities (s factors) for specific abilities
Louis Thurstone
Seven primary mental abilities
All intellectual activities involve one or more primary mental abilities
Single IQ score obscured more than it revealed
J.P. Guilford
Structure of intellect
180 different intellectual abilities
Three dimensions: mental operations, contents, products
Memory recording and memory retention
Gardner’s 8 Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner
Gardner denies the existence of a general intelligence (g factor)
Rather, he proposes that there are eight distinct forms of intelligence he refers to as “frames of mind” (see fig. 7.3)
One of the most controversial aspects of Gardner’s theory is the equal weight he assigns to all forms of intelligence
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Bodily_Kinesthetic
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
Figure 7.3
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Componential Intelligence
Mental abilities closely related to success on conventional IQ and achievement tests
Experimental Intelligence
Encompasses creativity
Encompasses insight
Contextual (practical) Intelligence
“Street smarts”
Adapt well to environment
Change environment to improve success, find new environment
Figure 7.4
Module 7.5
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Binet (Alfred Binet): children with mental age two years below chronological age were disabled
Stern: IQ = divide mental age by chronological age
Terman: take Stern IQ and multiply by 100
Intelligence Testing
Norms = standards based on scores of many
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
Individually administered IQ test ages 2 to 23
Deviation score = compare individual’s score with those of same age on whom test’s norms were formed
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS - IV)
Individual intelligence test for adults
Yields separate verbal and performance IQ scores
Overall IQ score
Requirements of Good Tests
Reliability
Same score each time test taken
Validity
Test measures what it should
Standardization
Establishing norms by which all scores are interpreted
Module 7.6
Range of Intelligence
Terman’s Study of Gifted People
Longitudinal study
Ended myth that mentally superior people physically inferior
Gifted group had better mental health, more likely to be successful in real world
Intellectual Disabilities
Approximately 2-3% of Canadians
Deficits in intellectual and adaptive functioning
Mainstreaming = educating students in regular schools and classrooms
Figure 7.5
Module 7.7
Uses and Abuses of IQ Tests
IQ scores are good predictors of academic achievement, success in school
Related to job performance, income, social status, education completed
Culture-fair intelligence tests
Figure 7.6
Nature-Nurture Controversy
Behavioural Genetics
Relative effects of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) on behaviour and ability
Heritability = degree characteristic influenced by heredity
Twin Study Method
Study resemblance of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins
Adoption Study Method
Study identical twins separated at birth and raised apart
Heredity, when separated twins have similar traits
Environment, when separated twins differ on traits
Figure 7.7
Intelligence: Fixed or Changeable?
Genetics influence intelligence; studies of identical twins reared apart
IQ test scores may be modified with enriched environment e.g. higher parental education and early access to books
Lack of support for race as a construct explaining IQ performance. Current research has identified many underlying issues that differentially impact IQ performance within different subgroups in society as well as across nations
Underperformance may be better understood as differences in:
Exposure to formalized testing among different groups
Outcome expectations regarding IQ testing/resources, as well as motivational differences
Module 7.8
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday life
Unrelated to IQ scores
Correlated with both academic and social success
Personal Components of EI
Foundation of EI = self-knowledge
Awareness of emotions
Ability to manage emotions
Self-motivation
A person with high emotional intelligence shows empathy, recognizing non-verbal signals from others and making appropriate responses
Those who are high in emotional intelligence often emerge as leaders, can empathize with their followers and understand their needs and wants
Interpersonal Components of EI
Empathy and ability to handle relationships
Capacity to manage relationships
Optimism and belief that trying harder after failure will lead to future success