Identifying and Conducting Scientific Investigations

The central question of this study is how questions about the natural world become scientific investigations.
While thousands of questions can be asked about natural events, not all of them qualify as scientific questions.
To understand scientific inquiry, one must first identify the characteristics that make a question non-scientific.

Non-scientific questions often contain specific clues that distinguish them from those that can be investigated through the scientific method.
Examples of Non-scientific Questions:
- "Can ghosts move objects?"
- "Which animal is the best animal?"
- "Whom should you vote for?"
- "Does positive thinking help make people healthier?"
Analysis of Non-scientific Clues:
- Subjectivity and Opinion: Words like "best" are entirely subjective. They depend on individual criteria rather than universal data.
- The Supernatural: Questions regarding ghosts or other supernatural entities fall outside the natural world and cannot be tested using natural world metrics.
- Moral and Social Values: Questions about voting involve ethical, moral, and social values. Since these values differ for every person, there is no single scientific answer, which is why societies hold elections rather than conducting scientific tests to determine a leader.
- Lack of Definition/Measurability: Phrases like "positive thinking" are difficult to define and measure quantitatively. Without a standard unit of measurement for "happy thoughts," data collection is impossible.

To precisely categorize a question, a standardized checklist should be applied:

Does the question refer to the natural world or the supernatural?
Is the question based on personal or collective opinion?
Does the question rely on moral or social values?
Does the question ask about phenomena that can be measured? (If it cannot be measured, it is difficult to collect data).
Is the question too vague? Vagueness prevents the focus necessary for a successful investigation.

Observing a picture of a whale shark accompanied by remoras allows for a comparison between scientific and non-scientific inquiries.
Non-scientific Questions:
- "Does the whale shark like the remoras?": This is non-scientific because "liking" cannot be measured. There is no international standard for how a shark expresses affection or preference, and you cannot give a shark a survey.
- "What color is a whale shark?": While this is a fact-based question, it does not require a scientific investigation. It can be answered through simple research or observation of a photograph. It is too focused on a static, known fact.
Scientific/Testable Questions:
- "What does the whale shark eat?": This is testable through a field study. By observing the shark in its natural habitat and collecting data on its consumption, a conclusion can be reached.
- "Do the remoras harm the shark or help the shark?": This is a testable question that involves observing physical impacts and interactions between the two species to collect data on symbiosis, parasitism, or commensalism.

Scientific questions must be processed through the scientific method to be considered an investigation.
The Scientific Method Process:
1. Ask a scientific question.
2. Turn the question into a hypothesis.
3. Design an experiment.
4. Conduct the experiment to collect data (either in a laboratory setting or through a field study).
5. Analyze the results to reach a conclusion.
Only scientific questions can be answered through scientific investigations.

Scientific investigations often lead to new understanding and, subsequently, new scientific questions. This cyclical process is demonstrated by the Human Genome Project.
Background of the HGP:
- It was a government partnership and competition that lasted for $13$ years.
- The goal was to sequence the complexity of the human genome, identifying every base in our DNA.
- Researchers aimed to see what humans have in common and what differentiates them from other species.
- The project identified many genes and provided information about non-coding DNA sequences.
Completion and New Questions:
- The sequencing was finished in $2003$ .
- Even after finishing the sequence, science was not "done." The results spawned new questions, such as:
  - How can the diagnosis of genetic diseases be improved?
  - How can drugs be improved? (Moving away from trial and error and toward tailoring drugs to human biochemistry).
  - Can side effects be reduced by targeting drugs specifically to an individual's unique genetic makeup?
  - How are different ethnic groups and families related?
  - How are humans related to other organisms on the evolutionary tree?
  - How can this DNA knowledge be used to produce disease-resistant food crops to feed a growing population?

Data from investigations like the Human Genome Project benefits related fields, particularly Forensics.
Definition of Forensics: The study of evidence in criminal cases to further arguments for prosecution (DA) or defense (attorney).
Applications of DNA Knowledge in Forensics:
- Identifying criminals with higher accuracy.
- Locating and identifying victims of disappearance or crime.
- Analyzing evidence "after the fact." Technological improvements allow scientists to revisit evidence from years ago to find answers that were previously unavailable.
- Exonerating victims of wrongful accusation and ensuring the conviction of criminals who might have otherwise escaped justice.
- Providing solace and information to families of victims.

As technology improves, we understand more about the scientific world, allowing us to answer questions that were previously unanswerable.
This leads to further specialized investigations, such as the current inquiries into antibiotic-resistant bacteria.