4.6c-4.7a

Motivation: Hunger

• Motivation: The process that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior.

Exploring the Self: Benefits of Self-Esteem

• Self and Personality:
  • The self organizes thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which are central to personality.
  • William James (1890) emphasized the concept of the self.
  • Humanistic psychologists revived interest in the self.
  • Modern Research Themes:
  • Self-awareness
  • Self-esteem
  • Self-monitoring
  • Self-schemas
• Brain Activity: Self-reflection activates the frontal lobe.
• Possible Selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986):
  • Hoped-for selves (successful, admired) vs. feared selves (failing, lonely).
  • These concepts motivate goal-setting and personal achievement (Duckworth et al., 2013).

Understanding Self-Esteem

• Definition:
  • Self-Esteem is the overall sense of self-worth.
• Age and Happiness:
  • Self-esteem increases with age and is linked to happiness, confidence, and social connection.
• Growth Factors:
  • Grows through real accomplishments, not artificial praise.
• Self-Efficacy (Bandura):
  • Belief in one’s ability to succeed at specific tasks; a better predictor of academic success than general self-esteem.
• Spotlight Effect (Gilovich, 1996):
  • We believe others notice us more than they actually do; to counter this, take others’ perspectives and remember the effect is often exaggerated.

Real vs. Inflated Self-Esteem

• Authentic vs. Inflated Self-Esteem:
  • Authentic self-esteem comes from effort, achievement, and real feedback.
  • Inflated self-esteem can be detrimental; unrealistic praise or rewards without effort can backfire, leading to decreased motivation and passivity.
• Consequences of Threatened Self-Esteem:
  • Those with threatened self-esteem may lash out or become judgmental and prejudiced.
  • Acceptance of oneself fosters the acceptance of others.
• Risks of Inflated Self-Esteem:
  • Unrealistic praise can harm motivation and lead to learned helplessness (Seligman, 2012).
  • Threatened self-esteem correlates with increased disparagement of others, racial bias, and heightened sensitivity.

Key Vocabulary

• Dunning-Kruger Effect:
  • Incompetent individuals often overestimate their abilities. Often described with the phrase "unskilled and unaware of it" (Justin Kruger & David Dunning, 1999).
• Self-Serving Bias:
  • The tendency to view oneself favorably; taking credit for successes and blaming failures on external factors.
• Narcissism:
  • Excessive self-love and self-focus leading to materialism and inflated expectations.
• Defensive Self-Esteem:
  • Fragile self-esteem that is easily threatened by criticism.
• Secure Self-Esteem:
  • Stable self-esteem based on internal acceptance rather than external validation.
• Humility:
  • Recognizing that one is not entitled to special treatment despite accomplishments.

Narcissism and Its Impact

• Generational Narcissism:
  • Jean Twenge’s "Generation Me" (born in the 1980s - early 1990s) expresses increased narcissism, materialism, and unrealistic expectations.
• Behavioral Effects of Narcissism:
  • Narcissists may exhibit sexually aggressive behavior and approach relationships as competitions.
  • Often raised by parents who instilled a sense of superiority.

Defensive vs. Secure Self-Esteem

• Defensive Self-Esteem:
  • Fragile, focuses on self-preservation; criticisms feel threatening.
• Secure Self-Esteem:
  • Less fragile, derives from internal acceptance; more forgiving of self and others.
  • Cultivating relationships beyond oneself contributes to healthier self-esteem.

Strategies for Balanced Self-Perception

• Seek honest peer feedback to assess your competence.
• Invite external assessments to gain perspective on your abilities.
• Focus on relationships larger than yourself to foster secure self-esteem.
• Recognizing and accepting personal flaws fosters compassion towards others.

Cultural Perspectives on Self

• Individualism vs. Collectivism:
  • Individualism:
  • Personal goals and self-expression take precedence; identity is shaped by personal traits and achievements.
  • Collectivism:
  • Prioritizes group harmony; identity formed through group roles, with focus on collective interests.
• Cultural Differences:
  • Individualist cultures emphasize casual relationships, while collectivist cultures advocate for deep group connections.

Motivation Concepts

• Instinct:
  • Fixed patterns of behavior throughout a species that are unlearned.
• Drive:
  • Aroused state triggered by physiological needs.
• Incentive:
  • External stimuli that lure or repel behavior.
• Homeostasis:
  • Maintenance of a steady internal state.
• Arousal:
  • State of being alert and activated.

Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory:
  • Behaviors are genetically programmed and common throughout species.
• Drive-Reduction Theory:
  • Responding to internal drives and external incentives to maintain homeostasis.
• Arousal Theory:
  • Seeking optimal levels of arousal beyond reducing drives.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
  • Prioritizing lower-level needs (physiological and safety) before higher-level needs (social, esteem, self-actualization).
• Incentive Theory:
  • Motivated by both internal drives and external incentives.

Self-Fulfillment and Transcendence

• Self-Transcendence:
  • Finding meaning beyond oneself gives purpose and enhances coping mechanisms.
• Cultural Impacts:
  • Different cultures prioritize different motivations (individualistic vs collectivistic).

Summary Table of Classic Motivation Theories