Peaceful Coexistence
President Eisenhower “New Look” foreign policy
1953 saw a change in the international situation with the leaders of both superpowers changing. Following the death of Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev became premier and the Republican Eisenhower was elected in to office
Eisenhower was elected with the promise of bringing peace in the Korean War and an armistice was signed in 1953 also removing this as a major source of cold war conflict
Known as ‘Ike’, Eisenhower had a considerable military record in the Second World War and had become Commander-in-Chief of NATO when it was established in 1949. His background meant that, unlike Truman, he was less likely to be accused of being ‘soft on communism.’ Ike also had a staunchly anti-communist Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, who during the election campaign had suggested that containment was insufficient and that the US should consider ‘roll back’ – implying that the Soviets should be pushed back from the countries it dominated particularly in Eastern Europe
The ‘New Look’ defence policy, as outlined in January 1954 by Dulles, suggested that the US would respond to Soviet aggression with ‘massive nuclear retaliation’. Eisenhower had three key aims for his policy; firstly to build up the US nuclear capability to facilitate a ‘massive nuclear response’ to Soviet expansion, secondly to use covert operations to undermine threats posed by communist forces and finally, to strengthen US alliances
Khrushchev
Initially Khrushchev ruled as part of a triumvirate with Malenkov and Bulganin. Malenkov formulated the idea of 'a new course' with the West which was later picked up by Khrushchev who renamed it 'peaceful co-existence'
This new course was a move away from the Leninist doctrine of the inevitability of war between capitalism and communism
Khrushchev's 'Peaceful Co-existence' meant that Capitalism and Communism should accept the continuing existence of one another rather than using force to destroy each other. This did not mean that the USSR now accepted capitalism; rather that they had no need to risk nuclear war as capitalism would die out from its own weaknesses. Nor did it mean that Khrushchev intended to be any less confrontational towards the USA when the interests of the USSR were at stake - as you will see in his actions between 1956 to 1963
There were some signs of improved relations with the new leaders when an agreement was made over Austria
In April 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a formal peace agreement with Austria. The Austrian State Treaty ended the four-power occupation of Austria and created an independent and neutral country. Following on from this, the Geneva Summit took place in July 1955. This was the first meeting of the heads of government of the power since 1945
However, little was achieved regarding disarmament. Nevertheless, the summit was a breakthrough due to the fact that the two leaders were actually meeting. In addition scientific and cultural exchanges took place leading to the phrase 'spirit of Geneva' being applied to the events of 1955
However, events in 1956 - the Hungarian Uprising and the Suez crisis, along with an increase of tension in the arms and space race helped to dissipate this good feeling
The Hungarian Uprising, also known as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, was a nationwide revolt against the Soviet-backed government in Hungary:
In October 1956, protests erupted in Hungary, initially demanding political reforms, freedom of speech, and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country
The peaceful demonstrations quickly turned into a full-scale uprising, with Hungarian citizens fighting against Soviet control and the Communist regime
The Hungarian government collapsed, and Imre Nagy, a reformist Communist, became the Prime Minister and promised democratic changes
However, the Soviet Union, led by Nikita Khrushchev, intervened militarily in November 1956, using tanks and troops to suppress the revolt
The Hungarian resistance fought fiercely but ultimately faced defeat against the superior Soviet forces
The uprising resulted in a significant loss of life, with estimates ranging from thousands to tens of thousands of Hungarians killed, and many more imprisoned or forced into exile
The Soviet Union reestablished control over Hungary and installed a more hardline Communist regime, marking the end of the uprising
The Suez crisis also led to fears of growing Soviet influence in the Middle East; thus in 1957 Eisenhower issued the Eisenhower Doctrine which clearly stated that the United States would help any country in the Middle East to fight against Communism
The Suez Crisis, which occurred in 1956, was a conflict centered around the Suez Canal in Egypt:
In July 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, previously controlled by a joint British-French company. This move aimed to assert Egyptian sovereignty and gain revenue from the canal
The nationalization of the canal angered Britain, France, and Israel, as it threatened their access to this vital waterway and their economic and strategic interests in the region
Britain and France, with secret support from Israel, devised a plan to retake the canal. They orchestrated a military invasion of Egypt in late October 1956
The invading forces quickly achieved initial success, but their actions drew international condemnation, particularly from the United States and the Soviet Union
Under pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union, and facing economic and political consequences, Britain and France agreed to a ceasefire and a withdrawal from Egypt
The crisis marked a significant shift in global power dynamics, with the United States and the Soviet Union asserting themselves as influential players in the Middle East
It also highlighted the decline of European colonial powers and the growing assertiveness of post-colonial nations in pursuing their national interests
The Suez Crisis had far-reaching consequences, including the decline of British and French influence in the region, increased Arab nationalism, and a shift in global politics during the Cold War era