Unit 3 AP World History: Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

LAND-BASED EMPIRE EXPANSION (1450-1750) The period between $1450$ and $1750$ was characterized by the rapid growth of empires relying on territorial holdings and gunpowder weapons. The Ottoman Empire, founded in the $14th$ century, expanded significantly throughout Southwestern Europe and Anatolia, most notably by conquering Constantinople in $1453$ and renaming it Istanbul. The Safavid Empire rose in the Middle East during the early $16th$ century; under Sha Ismail and Sha Abbas, it developed a professional military of enslaved Christians from the Caucasus. The Mughal Empire was established in South Asia in $1526$ when Babur defeated the Delhi Sultanate, later reaching its peak under Akbar. In China, the Manchu people overthrew the ethnic Han Ming Dynasty to establish the Ching Dynasty in the $17th$ century. These expansions led to frequent territorial and religious conflicts, such as the Safavid-Mughal conflict over contested land in Afghanistan. # METHODS OF ADMINISTRATION AND LEGITIMIZATION Rulers utilized various strategies to consolidate and legitimize their authority. Centralized bureaucracies were common, such as the Ottoman Devshirme system, which trained enslaved Christians for elite administrative and military positions as Janissaries. Rulers also legitimized their power through religious ideologies like the Divine Right of Kings in Europe, or through artistic propaganda like the imperial portraits of Emperor Kangxi, which emphasized Confucian wisdom. Monumental architecture served as a visible manifestation of power, seen in the Sun Temple of Cusco and the Palace of Versailles, where Louis XIV monitored the French nobility. To fund these states, empires developed efficient tax systems, including the Mughal Zamindar system, Ottoman tax farming awarded to the highest bidders, and Aztec tribute lists for conquered provinces. # BELIEF SYSTEMS AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS Belief systems underwent significant transformation and synthesis during this period. In $1517$, Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation by posting his $95$ Theses against Catholic corruption, specifically simony and the sale of indulgences; the Catholic Church responded with the Council of Trent to address these grievances while reaffirming its doctrine. The split between Sunni and Shia Islam intensified due to political rivalries between the Ottomans and Safavids, with Sha Ismail enforcing Shia Islam and demanding the ritual cursing of the first three caliphs who succeeded Muhammad. In South Asia, Sikhism emerged as a syncretic religion, blending Hindu and Islamic doctrines. While continuing beliefs in one God and reincarnation, Sikhism rejected the traditional caste system of Hinduism and the gender hierarchies found in Islam.