Written to declare independence from Great Britain.
Presents a clear statement of the social contract theory of government.
The primary function of government is to protect the natural rights of citizens.
Articles of Confederation
A weak central government was desired to maintain states' rights.
Too much power was given to individual states as opposed to the Federal Government.
A strong central government threatens the rights of people.
Established a government with a unicameral legislature but no Executive or Judicial branches.
US Constitution
The function is to strengthen the federal government.
Governments get their authority from the people.
Ideas of life, liberty, and happiness came from John Locke.
Writers wanted to balance individual liberties with the needs of the nation.
Solved the problem that existed under the Articles of Confederation by providing for Federal control of interstate commerce.
The 14th Amendment allowed the National Government to place restrictions on state governments.
Influenced by Locke and Montesquieu's desire for limits on the power of government.
The Preamble explains that people are the true source of political power.
Provides for a legislature to make laws, similar to the Articles.
"Consent of the Governed" concept is from the European Enlightenment.
The Great Compromise settled the debate over representation in Congress.
Three Branches of Government
Created a national government with three branches.
Checks and balances were included because its writers feared a concentration of political power.
Separation of Powers was needed to prevent the same man or group from having executive, legislative, and judicial control.
Checks and balances prevented one branch from becoming too powerful.
The Federal form of government divided power between levels of government.
Democratic commitment shown by election of the House of Representatives.
The Supreme Court's judgments may determine the effect of the law.
Judicial Review allows the Court to determine the constitutionality of laws.
Supreme Court Justice John Marshall strengthened the Federal Government.
Supreme Court interpretation of the Constitution is judicial review.
Flexibility of the Constitution
The Bill of Rights was to prevent government abuse of power.
The Bill of Rights protects individuals' civil liberties.
The Bill of Rights provided reserved powers to the states in order to limit the powers of the Federal Government.
Amendments allow government to meet the changing needs of society.
Few amendments are added because the Constitution is broadly interpreted.
A system of political parties is an example of the flexibility of the Constitution.
Political parties nominate candidates for office and conduct campaigns.
A criticism of the electoral college system is that the person who wins the popular vote is not always elected president.
Lobbyists for special interest groups influence public officials to support or oppose specific programs.
Only the ratification of an amendment to the Constitution can overturn a Supreme Court ruling.
Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or people.
The Louisiana Purchase (Jefferson) was an example of the elastic clause.
Ratification of the Constitution
Federalists (Hamilton) wanted a strong national government; Anti-Federalists (Jefferson) did not.
The Federalist papers encouraged ratification of the US Constitution.
Federalists and anti-Federalists disagreed over the division of power between national and state governments.
Federalists wanted the Constitution ratified (approved).
A Bill of Rights was added to persuade anti-Federalists to ratify the Constitution.
The Three-Fifths Compromise and Great Compromise dealt with the issue of representation in Congress.
Early American Policy
G. Washington adopted a position of neutrality for the US in foreign affairs.
US remained neutral from political connections in foreign policy for 100 years.
G. Washington put down the Whiskey Rebellion showing the new National Government intended to enforce Federal laws.
In Marbury v. Madison the Supreme Court established the power to determine the constitutionality of laws.
In the Monroe Doctrine (1823), the US expanded influence in the W. Hemisphere.
The Monroe Doctrine declared that the US would view European interference in the Americas as a threat to the national interests of the US.
Hamilton and the Federalists wanted a strong central government.
Hamilton encouraged a protective tariff to encourage the growth of manufacturing.
When purchasing the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson contradicted his belief in a strict interpretation of the Constitution.
Age of Jackson
Andrew Jackson was criticized for ignoring the Supreme Court and abusing authority.
Jackson was accused of exceeding the constitutional limits of his authority.
Native Americans were affected by the expansion of the US and forced westward.
The desire to assimilate Native Americans led to the Dawes Act (Americanization).
Manifest Destiny
The Louisiana Purchase focused the US on westward expansion.
The Louisiana Purchase accounted for the largest increase in US growth.
An industrialized Northeast, plantation South, and small farms in the West all peacefully shared the same nation from 1820-1860 (sectionalism).
Manifest Destiny was similar to imperialistic expansion.
Buffalo hunters ruined the economic base of Native Americans which helped drive Natives onto reservations.
Natives had some rights guaranteed by treaties with the Federal Government.
Natives Americans reluctantly accepted placement on reservations.
The Homestead Act encouraged Westward expansion.
"The fittest survived and the weak died out" - was often referred to as Social Darwinism.
Women's Movement
The main goal of the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 was to obtain equal rights for women.
Western territories adopted laws granting political rights to women because the hardships of pioneer life encouraged shared responsibilities.
Political Issues with Slavery
Slavery disappeared because it did not fit the North's economic interests.
Importation of slaves was ended after 1807 because they were replaced by immigrant workers from Eastern Europe.
The Missouri Compromise and Kansas-Nebraska Act dealt with extending slavery into the territories.
The Constitution became an issue of national discord due to vast differences of opinion over the issues of states’ rights.
Responses to Slavery
Nat Turner's activities show slave revolts occurred in the South.
Abolitionist and Progressive Movements both sought to improve the conditions of poor or oppressed peoples.
The issue of slavery led to the growth of sectionalism.
Scott v. Sandford strengthened the determination of abolitionists to rid slavery.
Republican Party and Election of Lincoln
Under Lincoln's tenure, the South seceded from the US mainly over the slavery issue.
Lincoln took strong action to maintain the Union.
Lincoln explained that the secession of the South was illegal because the government was a union of people and not of states.
Civil War
The industrialized and populous North defeated the agricultural rural South.
The North had more human resources and war materials than the South.
The North had more advanced transportation systems than the South.
Politics of Reconstruction
Fierce debate occurred as to the terms by which the South is admitted into the Union.
Lincoln wanted to treat the South as if they had never actually left the Union.
State Legislatures deprived freed men of their legal rights (Black Codes).
Radical Republicans wanted the South punished and rights for freedmen.
Radical Republicans wanted to use Reconstruction to force political and social reform in the South.
The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments were passed to help civil rights reform.
The Solid South was where the Democratic Party was dominant.
Ulysses S. Grant's administration is associated with corrupt public officials.
Impact of Reconstruction
The Federal Govt's power was strengthened over the states post-Civil War.
After the Civil War, secession was no longer regarded as an option for states.
Continued Inequality
African Americans still found gaining equal rights was difficult.
Jim Crow Laws limited the impact of amendments passed to assist minorities.
Literacy tests and poll taxes prevented African Americans from voting.
The Know-Nothings and the KKK fostered resentment against minorities.
Poll taxes and the KKK were responses to the 14th and 15th Amendments.
Disregard for fugitive slave laws shows strong values are difficult to regulate.
Age of Railroads
The Federal Government provided free land for railroad construction.
Railroad business practices led to a demand for government regulation.
Railroads led to Westward expansion.
Land from the Federal Government led to the building of the transcontinental railroad.
The Grange Movement forced railroads to lower freight rates.
Big Business
As industry developed, large companies formed that held monopolies and rid competition.
Industrialists contributed to the economy by establishing large corporations.
Industrialization resulted in the rising influence of the middle class.
A result of industrialization was the power of large corporations.
The Interstate Commerce Commission (1887) and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) showed that the Federal Gov't could regulate business practices and eliminate monopolies.
The Clayton and Sherman Antitrust Acts promote fair competition in business.
The Clayton/Sherman Antitrust Acts combat businesses that limit competition.
A major goal of trusts was to eliminate competition.
Corporations formed due to the need for large amounts of investment capital.
President Teddy Roosevelt distinguished between "good" and "bad" trusts.
From 1865-1900 business practices were developed to eliminate competition.
The rise of big business was an issue that dominated national politics (1865-1900).
Business wanted to consolidate the manufacture and distribution of products.
As the US industrialized, mechanization and division of labor led smaller industries to have difficulty maintaining competitiveness.
Rockefeller Foundation, Carnegie Hall show how entrepreneurs support philanthropic activities to benefit society.
Industrialists used Social Darwinism (survival of fittest) to justify monopolies.
Imperialism
During the Age of Imperialism, strong countries took colonies to gain raw materials.
The growth of capitalism encouraged imperialism because of the desire of business to obtain new markets for American products.
A colonial empire was desired because industries needed raw materials/ markets.
The desire for new markets and coaling stations led to imperialism.
In the late 1800's, the US obtains markets for surplus goods.
Nationalism and industrialism led to imperialism.
Unionization
Unions were formed to protect worker's rights during this Age of Industry.
The Amer. Fed. of Labor focused on gains in wages and working conditions.
The railroad strikes (1887), Haymarket Affair (1886), and Pullman strike (1894) show unions were willing to use force to achieve their goals.
Collective bargaining is a discussion between labor leaders and management.
The Wagner Act gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively.
Unsafe working conditions in factories were common.
Many strikes were unsuccessful because of government support of business.
The National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) gave unions the right to bargain collectively.
Immigration
New immigrants lived in urban areas and held low-paying jobs.
The US placed few restrictions on immigration so there would be cheap labor.
Nativists supported quotas to limit immigration.
Nativists (US nationalists) feared immigrants would work for cheaper wages.
Chinese Exclusion Act; Gentlemen's Agreement were expressions of nativism.
Immigrant children are educated in public schools to assist with assimilation.
Local politicians assisted the social, economic, and political assimilation of immigrants into the community.
Urbanization
Many people moved to the cities to find jobs in factories.
Rise in domestic and foreign commerce creates rapid economic growth in cities.
Industrialization led to urbanization and fewer farmers.
The growth of industry led to urbanization.
Problems in Society
People wanted to reform society, as poverty grew during the period of rapid growth.
In the late 1800's, farmers believed their problems would be solved if the Federal Gov't put more money into circulation.
The work of Upton Sinclair, Frank Norris, and Lincoln Steffens show the problems in government and industry needed to be corrected.
Sinclair's The Jungle passed legislation requiring federal inspection of meat.
Jacob Riis's photographs and the settlement house movement led by Jane Addams drew attention to the needs of the urban poor in the late 19thC.
Jacob Riis and Sinclair exposed poverty and corruption stemming from industry and urbanization.
"Muckrakers" expose social conditions in need of reform.
The Dawes Act (1887) granted farmland to Native Americans to assimilate them into society.
Civil Service exams were enacted to eliminate corruption in gov't hiring.
Economics
Graduated (progressive) income tax rates rise as individual incomes rise.
The Federal Reserve lowers interest rates to avoid recessions.
The Federal Reserve regulates interest rates and money supply.
John Hay's Open Door Policy increased US access to trade in Asia.
The Open Door Policy expanded US trade with China.
The mechanization of agriculture led to opposition because jobs were lost.
Progressivism
A social and political movement to reform the ills of society.
A study of the Populist and Progressive movements prove that radical ideas become accepted in later times.
The Populist Party was a successful third party because laws were passed that attained some of their goals; proposed ideas became law.
Ideas of 3rd parties have been adopted by the two major parties.
3rd party platforms are often important in helping to bring about change.
Reform legislation provided for increased direct participation in government.
Referendums and recall elections were ideas to increase citizen participation.
Abolitionist and Progressive Movements both sought to improve the conditions of poor or oppressed peoples.
US Gov't increased role to reduce the abuses of big business.
T. Roosevelt's New Nationalism increased US power in foreign affairs.
T. Roosevelt is accused of ignoring democracy in his foreign policy.
Spanish-American War
The Mexican War, the War of 1812, and the Spanish-American War were fought for the expansion of US self-interest.
US newspapers used "yellow journalism" to arouse public anger against Spain.
US in Latin America
The US wanted to be the main influence on events occurring in the Western Hemisphere.
T. Roosevelt supported a Panamanian rebellion against Colombia in 1903 to gain the right to complete a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Roosevelt and Monroe felt US influence in L.A. must be accepted.
The US intervened in Latin America to ensure the safety of growing investments in the area.
Causes of WWI
WWI was caused by nationalism, competitive imperialism, militarism, and the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand.
US Entry into WWI
US public opinion favored neutrality initially.
German U-Boat attacks (on the Lusitania and American ships) and the Zimmerman Note caused US entry into WWI.
Impact of WWI
The Treaty of Versailles was considered harsh on Germany and ultimately led to WWII; The US wanted a policy of isolationism to keep out of future foreign wars.
Wilson's 14 Points provided for a just and lasting peace.
After WWI, the US wanted to avoid involvement in foreign conflicts.
Immigration laws were meant to restrict immigration through the use of quotas.
Women's suffrage was strengthened by economic opportunities from WWI.
US immigration policies limited southern and eastern European immigration.
Isolationist Senator Henry Cabot Lodge objected to ratification of the Treaty of Versailles to prevent the US from being drawn into conflicts by the League of Nations.
Senators opposed to Versailles opposed membership in the League of Nations.
Opposition to Versailles was based on the fear that it would violate the US policy of noninvolvement.
The US contributed to world peace by supporting the disarmament movement.
The US remained neutral in the 1930s due to disillusionment resulting from WWI.
Normalcy
Harding's "return to normalcy" meant reduced international involvement and less government regulation of business.
Farmers overproduced basic staples as a result of WWI demands.
Disregard for Prohibition shows strong values are difficult to regulate.
Racial segregation led blacks to move to the North for factory jobs.
Mass Culture
The "Roaring 20's" was a period of increased consumerism.
American consumers increased the number of credit purchases (installment plan).
The 1920's and 1960's saw significant changes in manners and morals.
In the 1920's there was the widespread use of the automobile and an increase in buying.
During the Harlem Renaissance, blacks created works of art and literature.
The KKK and Red (Communist) Scare represented threats to civil liberties.
Causes of the Depression
The US had an uneven distribution of wealth.
Factories and farms produced more than consumers could purchase.
Impact of the Depression
The worldwide spread of the Depression shows global financial interdependence.
The Dust Bowl (drought) in Oklahoma shows the effect of geography on people's lives.
Farmers were provided low-cost loans to combat the Dust Bowl.
Hoover feared federal relief programs would destroy individual initiative.
Movies and novels during the Great Depression show that popular culture is shaped by economic and social conditions.
Literature often reflects the times in which it is created.
New Deal
FDR's efforts to rehabilitate the country after the Great Depression.
FDR's programs show that a political program changes due to current needs.
The New Deal supported government involvement in people's social/ economic life.
The SEC and FDIC restored the public's faith in financial institutions.
The TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority) used federal intervention for regional needs.
FDR expanded the role of government and defended New Deal programs.
Gov't saved farms by giving farmers $ to take land out of production.
Conservatives opposed the New Deal because it endangered free enterprise.
Gov't regulation of business activities continued Progressive Era policies.
The Federal Reserve System regulates the money supply.
Deficit spending by the Federal Government to revive the economy presumed that purchasing power will be increased and economic growth stimulated.
The FDIC developed rules to safeguard savings.
FDR's proposed expansion of the Supreme Court was viewed as a threat to the separation of powers.
Social Security was enacted to provide economic assistance to retired workers.
The impact of the New Deal in ending the Depression is difficult to measure because WWII accelerated economic growth.
The Federal Gov't assumed greater responsibility for the nation's well-being.
Causes of WWII
The appeasement policy believed war could be avoided by satisfying Hitler's demand for territorial expansion.
The attack on Pearl Harbor led to US entry into WWII.
US Policy towards WWII
US public opinion favored neutrality.
Isolationism is difficult because technology made nations interdependent.
FDR's Good Neighbor Policy was to improve relations with Latin America.
Neutrality Laws made to avoid war restricted US trade with warring nations.
The US modified its neutrality policy by providing aid to the Allies.
A challenge was fighting the war on several fronts.
US Homefront
The GI bill provided educational and financial assistance to veterans.
The internment of Japanese Americans (WWII) was based on racial prejudice.
Korematsu/Schenck v. US shows civil liberties are limited in certain situations.
The Supreme Court sometimes failed to protect the rights of minorities.
FDR's third term election challenged long-term political tradition.
Effects of WWII
The need for international peacekeeping post-WW II resulted in the creation of the United Nations.
The UN resembles the US under the Articles of Confederation.
The US had a strong commitment to collective security and world leadership.
The US adjusted its' economy easily because it suffered no wartime destruction.
Women and minorities had new opportunities in the workplace.
Truman and Eisenhower Doctrines concerned the containment of communism.
The US and European nations engaged in international cooperation through political and economic agreements after 1945.
Origins of Cold War
The Cold War developed as a result of tension between the superpowers.
The US and USSR supported opposing sides but had no direct confrontation.
The US and Soviet Union believed each was a threat to national security.
American economic aid (Marshall Plan) assisted European recovery.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was formed by democratic nations to provide collective security against Communist aggression.
NATO and Truman Doctrine carried out policy of containment.
Impact of Cold War at Home
US politicians were concerned about the containment of communism.
Truman ordered "loyalty investigations" for fear of Communist Party influence in government.
McCarthyism was based on public fear concerning the spread of communism.
McCarthyism encouraged nativist ideas and exposed suspected communists.
Fear of Communism led to the restriction of civil liberties.
Sputnik (USSR satellite) signals US fears of Soviet technological superiority (October 1957).
Presidential actions during times of crisis have increased executive power.
Great Society
President Johnson's Great Society program fought poverty and urban deterioration.
Johnson's Great Society was an attempt to solve the problems of poverty.
FDR and LBJ were similar in that they expanded the role of the federal government in citizens' lives.
Civil Rights Movement
Efforts to improve the conditions for minority groups within American society.
Brown v. Board of Education shows some Supreme Court decisions are ineffective unless the President enforces them.
The use of Federal marshals to protect African American students in Little Rock showed the Fed Gov't would enforce court integration decisions.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 removed the literacy test because different standards of literacy had been applied to different groups of voters.
ML King's protests within the framework of the law is civil disobedience.
A criticism of affirmative action (favor minorities) programs is that they lead to discrimination against more qualified people.
W.E.B. Du Bois insisted on African-American equality.
Eisenhower sent troops to Little Rock, Arkansas during the 1957 school integration crisis to exercise his power as commander in chief.
Little Rock shows the Federal Gov't enforces court decisions on integration.
The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Warren followed a policy of judicial activism, leading to broad social changes.
Segregation in public schools was declared unconstitutional because it was "inherently unequal".
Martin Luther King Jr. advocates civil disobedience as a form of dealing with unjust laws.
Social Change
The 1920's and 1960's saw significant changes in manners and morals.
Interstate highways contributed to the expansion of suburbs.
The post-WWII baby boom increased the need for educational resources.
US and Vietnam War
The US sends troops to Vietnam to contain the spread of communism from N to S Vietnam.
Conflicting opinions existed regarding US involvement in the Vietnam War.
Extremist attitudes impeded solving the difficult foreign policy problem.
Protests (1960's-70's) began because many Americans felt the war was unjust.
During the Vietnam War, questions were raised in the US concerning the extent of the President's powers as commander-in-chief.
A major long-term effect of the Vietnam War has been a reluctance to commit US troops for extended military action abroad.
The US experience in Vietnam shows that the outcome of a war can be strongly affected by public opinion.
Nixon and Watergate
Nixon became the only President ever to resign from office as a result of political scandal.
The Watergate scandal reinforced that the law applies equally to all citizens.
Watergate resulted in a loss of faith in elected government leaders.
The Presidential action that best represents the policy of Detente (relaxation of tensions) is Nixon's Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) with the USSR.
Ford and Carter
The Camp David accords promoted by Carter represented the first peace agreement between Israel and an Arab nation.
Reagan and Bush
A return to conservatism during the 1980's.
Reagan reduced government regulation of business.
Supply-side economics makes economic growth dependent on increased amounts of capital ($) available to business.
US troops entered the Persian Gulf area because US interests in the Middle East were threatened.
During the Persian Gulf War, the US was interested in protecting oil supplies.
The breakup of the Soviet Union led to the end of the Cold War.
An increase in debt is caused by high levels of government spending.
Bush was criticized for involving the US in foreign wars.
Clinton Administration
Presidents can benefit from a strong national economy.
Clinton is characterized as the "Teflon" President because character issues could not damage his presidency.
Positive economic conditions helped maintain Clinton's high approval rating.
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) between the US, Canada, and Mexico is meant to increase commerce and eliminate tariffs.
NATO troops in Bosnia help bring political stability to the area.
The Medicare Act and Disabilities Act show that New Deal principles continue to have a significant influence on later legislation.
Bush Administration
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.
War in Afghanistan against the Taliban and Al Qaeda.
War in Iraq.
Reappearance of massive budget deficits; large tax cuts and spending on expanded Medicare benefits.
No Child Left Behind Act; rise in mandated standardized testing in schools.
A real estate market collapse lead to the worst recession since the Great Depression.
Obama Administration
First African-American elected to the Presidency.
Passed huge economic stimulus package to prop up the economy.
Passed major health insurance reform package that will bring insurance to millions of Americans.
Began withdrawal of American troops from Iraq and Afghanistan.
Ordered mission that found and killed Al Qaeda leader, Osama bin Laden.
Rise of the "Tea Party" - extreme right-wing conservatives opposed to pretty much all government spending except for defense.
Original Articles of the Constitution
PREAMBLE
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
Article 1: The Legislature
Article 2: The Executive Department
Article 3: The Judicial Department
Article 4: Relations among States
Article 5: Amending the Constitution
Article 6: Role of National Government
Article 7: Ratification
Amendments to the Constitution
Amendment 1: Religious and Political Freedom
Amendment 2: Right to Bear Arms
Amendment 3: Quartering Troops
Amendment 4: Search and Seizure
Amendment 5: Rights of Accused Persons
Amendment 6: Right to Speedy, Public Trial
Amendment 7: Trial by Jury in Civil Cases
Amendment 8: Limits of Fines and Punishments
Amendment 9: Rights of the People
Amendment 10: Powers of the States and People
Amendment 11: Lawsuits against States
Amendment 12: Elections of Executives
Amendment 13: Slavery Abolished
Amendment 14: Civil Rights
Amendment 15: Right to Vote
Amendment 16: Income Tax
Amendment 17: Direct Election of Senators
Amendment 18: Prohibition
Amendment 19: Women's Suffrage
Amendment 20: "Lame Duck" Sessions
Amendment 21: Repeal of Prohibition
Amendment 22: Limit on Presidential Terms
Amendment 23: Voting in District of Columbia
Amendment 24: Abolition of Poll Taxes
Amendment 25: Presidential Succession
Amendment 26: Eighteen-year olds can vote
Amendment 27: Congressional Pay Raises
Important Supreme Court Cases
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Established the right of judicial review.
It was the first time a law or portion of a law was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
The Chief Justice was John Marshall.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Established the right of the federal government to tax a bank incorporated within a state.
It also established the fact that a state may not tax a branch of the United States bank that is located in that state.
"The power to tax is the power to destroy."
Gibbons v. Ogden (1857)
Established the supremacy of the federal government to regulate interstate commerce.
Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)
Declared that slaves would remain slaves, whether or not they traveled to free states from slave states.
The Supreme Court stated that slaves did not have the rights of citizens but were property of their owners.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
The Supreme Court declared that separate public facilities for blacks were legal as long as they were equal.
This in effect upheld legal segregation in society.
Segregation that is allowed by the law is known as De Juris Segregation.
Schenck v. United States (1919)
Schenck's right to freedom of the press was restricted.
He had sent pamphlets through the mail urging young men to resist the draft during World War I.
The court ruled that unlimited freedom of the press or speech under these circumstances presented a "clear and present danger" to the nation.
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes stated, "You can't yell fire in a crowded theatre."
West Virginia v. Barnette (1943)
As Jehovah's Witnesses, Barnette claimed that it was a violation of the right to freedom of religion to be forced to salute the flag, which required in the public schools of West Virginia.
The Supreme Court decided in their favour.
Korematsu v. United States (1944)
The Supreme Court ruled that the removal of the Japanese Americans in California to internment camps away from the West Coast during World War II was unconstitutional.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)
Ended once and for all de jure segregation in the United States.
The majority opinion stated that "separate but equal was inherently unequal."
This decision reversed the decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
The Supreme Court ruled that if police are to search a person's home, they must have a search warrant.
The evidence presented in a court from an illegal search and seizure would be inadmissible.
This was based on the 4th Amendment protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.
Engel v. Vitale (l962)
The first in a series of several Supreme Court decisions declaring the use of prayers in public schools as unconstitutional.
The Court decided that school prayers were a violation of the separation of church and state established by the First Amendment of the Constitution.
Baker v. Carr (1962)
The Supreme Court decided that districts within the United States that were established for determining representation in legislative bodies must be established so that they are approximately equal.
This became known as the "one man, one vote" principle.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
The Supreme Court ruled that all people accused of crimes have the right to an attorney at the time of trial.
If a person accused of a crime could not afford one (as in this case), it is the obligation of the court to provide one, free of charge.
The 6th Amendment, which outlines the elements of a fair trial, was applied in this case.
In addition, the 14th Amendment as it applied to states was used.
Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)
Supreme Court ruled that a person accused of a crime must have the right to an attorney at the time of questioning by the police.
This is to protect an accused person's right against self-incrimination as outlined by the 5th Amendment.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
The Supreme Court ruled that a person, when arrested for a crime, must be informed of their rights at the time of the arrest.
The warnings by the police must include: (1) the right to remain silent; (2) the right to an attorney; (3) the right to know that anything you say will be used against them in court; (4) the right to have an attorney even if they cannot afford one, etc.
These warnings became known as the Miranda Warnings.
Wade v. Roe (1973)
The ruling in this case established that a woman had the right to an abortion on demand within the first two trimesters of the pregnancy.
United States v. Nixon (1973)
As a result of the Watergate investigation, President Richard Nixon claimed executive privilege in the matter of turning over White House tape recordings to Congress.
As a result, the Supreme Court resolved the dispute between two branches of government.
University of California v. Bakke (1978)
The Supreme Court ruled that while the use of affirmative action programs is legal, they must apply them in such a way that the rights of others are not violated.