Henry VIII and His Ministers (1509–1540) - GCSE History Revision Notes

Key Events of Henry VIII’s Reign: $1509$ – $1540$

• $1509$: Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon. She was the widow of his brother, Arthur. The marriage was initially prohibited but allowed by the Pope because it was claimed the marriage to Arthur was never consummated.

• $1510$: Thomas Wolsey was appointed to the Privy Council.

• $1512$ – $1514$: War with France occurred. While Henry had some success, the conflict was expensive and his allies proved unreliable.

• $1513$: War with Scotland resulted in the Battle of Flodden, where King James IV was killed while Henry was in France.

• $1514$ – $1518$: Henry sought to renew the war with France but lacked international allies.

• $1515$: Thomas Wolsey was appointed Chancellor and became the Chief Minister.

• $1520$: Henry met Francis I at the Field of Cloth of Gold near Calais.

• $1521$: The Pope granted Henry the title 'Defender of the Faith' for his book criticizing Martin Luther.

• $1522$ – $1525$: Another war with France proved expensive and achieved nothing.

• $1525$: The Amicable Grant Rising occurred in East Anglia due to high taxation.

• $1526$ – $1529$: Henry sought an annulment from Catherine to marry Anne Boleyn; the Pope refused.

• $1528$: Henry declared war on Emperor Charles V, though no combat occurred.

• $1529$: Wolsey fell from power and died on the way to his treason trial.

• $1531$: Thomas Cromwell became Chief Minister and began masterminding the Church of England.

• $1532$: The clergy accepted the King as lawmaker. Anne Boleyn became pregnant.

• $1533$: Henry married Anne; their daughter Elizabeth was born.

• $1534$: The Act of Supremacy was passed; Henry became Head of the Church. The break with Rome was completed.

• $1535$: Execution of John Fisher and Sir Thomas More for refusing the oath.

• $1536$: Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries; execution of Anne Boleyn; marriage to Jane Seymour; and the Pilgrimage of Grace rebellion.

• $1537$: Birth of Edward and the subsequent death of Jane Seymour.

• $1539$: The Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries occurred.

• $1540$: Henry married Anne of Cleves in January.

The Structure of Tudor Society and Government

• Social Hierarchy: Tudor society was strictly hierarchical. God was at the top, followed by:     * The King.     * Nobles ($60 ext{ or } 70$ great landowners).     * Gentry (Lesser landowners, often lawyers or soldiers).     * Wealthy Merchants.     * Yeoman (Farmers who owned land).     * Tenant Farmers (Rented land from landowners).     * Craftspeople, labourers, servants, and the unemployed at the base.

• Population and Living Standards: In $1509$, the population was $2 rac{1}{4}$ million (similar to Greater Manchester today). Most lived in timber-framed houses in villages. Standards of living were generally high for the time; meat was common even for the poor. Noble meals could include $12$ courses.

• Economic Drivers: Trade was centered on cloth and wool, with Yorkshire and the South-West being hubs. By $1540$, England produced up to $83\%$ of the cloth in Europe.

• The Royal Household and Court: The Household included the King’s family and servants. The Court followed the King wherever he chose to be and included his friends and advisers.

• The Council and Parliament: The Council consisted of chosen advisers (nobles, churchmen, lawyers). Parliament met only when summoned to raise taxes for events like war. The House of Commons consisted of wealthy men.

• The Role of London: London was the largest city with a population of $60,000$. It was a hub for weaving and international trade with the Netherlands, Spain, and Russia.

The Accession and Character of Henry VIII

• Inheritance: Henry VIII gained the throne at age $18$ in $1509$. He inherited a stable kingdom and a full treasury from Henry VII, who had taxed the nobility heavily.

• Renaissance Prince: Henry styled himself as a Renaissance man. He spoke French, Spanish, and Latin. He was a musician (singing, playing instruments, composing), a dancer, and an athlete (hunting, archery, wrestling, jousting).

• Beliefs on Monarchy: Henry believed in the 'Divine Right of Kings,' meaning he was appointed by God and required total obedience. He was known for being stubborn.

• Aims as King:     * To decide policy and have ministers execute it.     * To win military glory and reclaim lands from France.     * To create a dazzling court comparable to those in France and Spain.     * To produce a male heir to avoid civil war.

• Strengths and Weaknesses: He was popular, rich, and well-advised, but also naive about government, disinterested in day-to-day administration, and a risk-taker (jousting without an heir).

Thomas Wolsey: Rise and Reforms

• Background: Born in $1473$ in Ipswich to a butcher. Gained a degree at Oxford and became a priest in $1498$.

• Rise to Power: Became Royal Almoner in $1509$. By $1514$, he was Bishop of Lincoln and Archbishop of York. In $1515$, he became Lord Chancellor, Cardinal, and Chief Minister. In $1518$, he was made Papal Legate (the Pope's representative).

• Personality and Wealth: Known as 'Alter Rex' (Second King). He was $10$ times richer than his rivals and built Hampton Court. He was charming, persuasive, and ruthless.

• Justice Reforms: Wolsey strengthened the Star Chamber to ensure the rich were not above the law. He oversaw cases himself and encouraged the poor to bring grievances.

• Enclosure: In $1517$, he launched an inquiry into enclosure (fencing off land for sheep). It resulted in $260$ court cases but achieved little long-term change and angered landowners.

• Eltham Ordinances ($1526$): A list of $79$ chapters designed to cut palace spending. It reduced the gentlemen in the Privy Chamber from $12$ to $6$. It largely failed because Wolsey lost interest after reducing his rivals' influence.

• Finance: Methods included 'Fifteenths and Tenths' (taxes on goods), recovering Crown Lands ($£15,000$ in $1515$), the 'Subsidy' (income tax based on earnings), and forced loans in $1522$ and $1523$.

The Amicable Grant and Foreign Policy

• The Amicable Grant Rising ($1525$): A tax levied (third of priests' property, sixth of ordinary people's) without Parliament's approval to fund a French invasion. It caused a rebellion of $10,000$ men in Lavenham, Suffolk. Henry was forced to abandon the tax and the invasion, blaming Wolsey.

• Foreign Policy Aims: To act as a peacemaker and play France against the Habsburg Empire (Spain and the Holy Roman Empire).

• Major Treaties:     * Treaty of London ($1518$): Promised 'universal peace' among $20$ European leaders. If one attacked another, the rest would defend. Only prevented war for $3$ years.     * Treaty of Bruges ($1521$): Alliance with Charles V against France.     * Treaty of Cambrai ($1529$): A peace deal between France and Charles V that left England isolated.

• Field of Cloth of Gold ($1520$): A diplomatic meeting between Henry and Francis I that showcased English wealth but decided nothing.

The King's Great Matter and the Fall of Wolsey

• Catherine of Aragon: Married Henry for $18$ years. Only Princess Mary survived. Catherine was $6$ years older than Henry and past childbearing by $1527$. Henry believed God was punishing him for marrying his brother's widow, citing the Old Testament: "If a man shall take his brother’s wife it is an impurity… they shall be childless."

• Annulment Attempts: Wolsey tried to persuade Pope Clement VII, who was effectively a prisoner of Charles V (Catherine's nephew). Cardinal Campeggio was sent to delay the case at Blackfriars Court ($1529$). The case was adjourned without a decision.

• The Fall: Wolsey fell in $1529$ due to the failure of the annulment, the failure of the Amicable Grant, and the influence of the Boleyn family (Anne, Thomas, and George). He was stripped of power in October $1529$ and died in July $1530$ while traveling to face treason charges.

Thomas Cromwell: Rise and Governance

• Background: Born in Putney in $1485$; son of an innkeeper. Worked as a cloth merchant and lawyer. He became a trusted advisor to Wolsey and survived his fall.

• Rise: MP for Taunton in $1529$; member of the Privy Council in $1531$; Chief Minister in $1534$.

• Annulment Mastermind: Cromwell changed tactics from persuading the Pope to seizing power for Henry. Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals ($1533$). Henry married Anne secretly in January $1533$. Archbishop Cranmer declared the marriage to Catherine invalid in May $1533$.

• Cromwell's Roles ($1534$ – $1540$):     * Vicar-General ($1535$): Control over the Church.     * Master of the Rolls ($1533$) and Chancellor of the Exchequer ($1533$).     * Lord Privy Seal ($1536$): Access to all documents.     * Lord Great Chamberlain ($1540$).

The Execution of Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour

• Fall of Anne Boleyn: Anne failed to give Henry a son (only Elizabeth survived). Henry became infatuated with Jane Seymour. Cromwell investigated Anne for adultery with Mark Smeaton (tortured for a confession) and others including her brother George. She was executed May $19$, $1536$.

• Jane Seymour: Married Henry $11$ days after Anne's death. She gave birth to Edward on October $12$, $1537$. This strengthened Henry's authority (seen as God’s blessing). She died less than two weeks later. Henry remained in mourning for $2$ years.

Governance Reforms Under Cromwell

• Royal Council: Reduced the body from $100$ members to a permanent 'Privy Council' of about $20$ professional administrators.

• Council of the North: Made permanent in $1537$ to maintain order after rebellions.

• Wales ($1536$): Officially incorporated into England; English became the official language and Wales gained $26$ MPs.

• Finance: Established the Court of Augmentations (to handle monastic income) and the Court of First Fruits and Tenths (to collect clergy taxes previously sent to the Pope).

• Parliament: Cromwell moved government toward 'Statute Law' (laws passed by Parliament) rather than just royal proclamation. This used the support of the gentry and nobility to strengthen the King's authority.

The Break with Rome and the Reformation

• Act of Succession ($1534$): Stated only Anne Boleyn's children could inherit. Mary was declared illegitimate.

• Act of Supremacy ($1534$): Henry became Supreme Head of the Church of England. The Pope’s name was removed from prayer books.

• Treason Act ($1534$): Expanded treason to include speaking against the royal supremacy.

• Shift in Beliefs:     * Act of Ten Articles ($1536$): Reduced sacraments from $7$ to $3$ (Baptism, Eucharist, Penance).     * Royal Injunctions ($1538$): Required English Bibles in every church and the destruction of holy relics/images.     * Six Articles ($1539$): Henry reaffirmed Catholic beliefs like transubstantiation and clerical celibacy to curb radical reform.

Resistance and the Monasteries

• Elizabeth Barton (Nun of Kent): Claimed visions that Henry would die if he divorced Catherine. She was executed for treason on April $21$, $1534$.

• John Fisher: Bishop of Rochester who refused the Oath of Succession. Executed in June $1535$.

• Thomas More: Former Lord Chancellor and author of 'Utopia'. Refused the oath and was executed on July $6$, $1535$. His death outraged Europe and made Henry a pariah.

• The Monasteries: England had $800$ houses with $10,000$ monks/nuns. They owned $1/3$ of the land. They provided medical care, education, and help for the poor.

• Dissolution Reasons: Financial (fund wars, gain independence from Parliament), Political (remove Pope-loyalists), and Religious (end 'superstition').

• The Process: Act for the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries ($1536$) and Greater Monasteries ($1539$). Monastic income totaled approximately $£160,000$ per year.

The Pilgrimage of Grace ($1536$)

• Causes: Religious (Catholic restoration), Social (loss of monastery aid), Political (Cromwell’s power), and Economic (rising rents, taxes, poor harvests).

• The Rebellion: Led by lawyer Robert Aske. The Lincolnshire rebels numbered $10,000$; the Yorkshire pilgrims numbered $40,000$. They wore the badge of the 'Five Wounds of Christ'.

• Outcome: The Duke of Norfolk met the rebels at Doncaster Bridge and offered a pardon and a parliament. Aske disbanded his army. Henry later used minor rebellions in $1537$ as an excuse to execute $178$ people, including Aske.

The Fall of Cromwell ($1540$)

• Anne of Cleves: Cromwell arranged the marriage to provide a Protestant ally against the Catholic crusade of France and Spain. Hans Holbein painted her miniature. Henry found her unattractive ('Flanders Mare') and blamed Cromwell. The marriage was annulled for non-consummation.

• Downfall: The Duke of Norfolk (Catherine Howard’s uncle) spread rumors that Cromwell was delaying the annulment and plotting to make England fully Protestant. Cromwell was arrested for treason and heresy on June $15$, $1540$. He was executed on July $28$, $1540$, without a trial via an Act of Attainder.