WWI: Who’s Who and What’s What

Pre-War Foundations and Geopolitics

Germany was united by Prussian leader Otto Von Bismarck in $1871$ following a conflict with France known as the Franco-Prussian War.
Through this war, Germany acquired Alsace-Lorraine, a central industrial region, from France.
Germany formed a defensive alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary, though the nation feared encirclement and remained ambitious for colonies to match other powers.
Industrial growth fueled Germany's power; however, domestic limitations meant they had to import $50 \%$ of their annual food requirements.
Austria-Hungary was a sprawling Central European Empire containing many ethnic groups with distinct cultures, including Germans, Czechs, Slavs, and Serbs.
Internal instability was high as Czechs and Slavs sought independence, while Serbs within the empire wanted to Join Serbia.
Russia historically supported a growing Serbia, further complicating the empire's ability to remain cohesive.
Italy existed as a collection of smaller states that, by $1914$ , was eager for expansion and international respect.
Britain followed a foreign policy of "Splendid Isolation" during the $1800s$ , viewing France and Russia as primary rivals.
Britain's fears shifted toward Germany as Germany's growth and ambitions increased, leading Britain to resolve threats from France and Russia via treaties.
France focused on building industry and military power to counter Germany and allied with Russia for protection.
Russia was the largest country with the most potential but remained backwards regarding development; it was mostly agricultural and relied on French loans for industry.
Russia felt a rivalry with Austria-Hungary and identified as a Slavic nation protector for countries like Serbia.
Following $1905$ , internal pressure in Russia necessitated a large army and a demonstratable military victory.

The Alliance System and the Naval Arms Race

The Triple Alliance ( $1882$ ) consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. It prevented Italy from attacking Austria-Hungary if the latter were attacked by Russia and obligated Italy to support Germany if threatened by France.
The Triple Entente ( $1907$ ) consisted of Russia, France, and Great Britain. It was fueled by the German-British arms race and German efforts to exploit Russia's war losses, resulting in the potential encirclement of Germany.
The Naval Arms Race began around $1900$ ; the British Royal Navy was the most powerful in the world, headed by Admiral John "Jacky" Fisher.
The Imperial German Navy was commanded by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz from $1897$ to $1916$ . Tirpitz received power and funding to double the fleet to challenge Britain.
In $1900$ , Germany announced plans to strengthen its coastal fleet into the German High Seas Fleet.
Britain taught the Japanese how to build and operate a modern navy; Japan subsequently defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of $1904-05$ , with the major victory at the Battle of Tsushima.
Before Tsushima, "mixed-gun" battleships were standard, featuring four $10-12''$ guns in two turrets with a $10\,mile$ range. The Russian fleet's defeat was attributed to being slower and unable to use smaller secondary guns effectively.
Post-Tsushima, Admiral Fisher scrapped minor ships that "could neither fight nor run away," seeking vessels with higher speed, better armor, and bigger guns.
HMS Dreadnought ("Fear Nothing") launched in $1906$ , revolutionizing naval design. It featured $11''$ armor plates, ten $12''$ guns capable of firing a broadside of $850\,lb$ shells over $10\,miles$ , and eight turbine engines reaching $21\,knots$ . It cost $\pounds 2,000,000$ , which was $50 \%$ more than any existing ship.
Germany's response was the "Tirpitz Plan" of $1908$ , leading to the order of $12$ SMS Nassau-class ships, which were slower with less powerful guns but superior armor.

The Road to War: The July Crisis of 1914

Military spending peaked in $1914$ , with Germany and Russia holding the largest budgets and Britain and Germany spending the most per capita.
Belgium possessed one of the strongest fortress systems in Europe and maintained $100,000$ troops at the start of the war.
Conscription was used by all major powers except Britain, who implemented it later.
Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo on June $28, 1914$ .
Gavrilo Prinzip, a member of the Bosnian separatist group Young Bosnia, was the successful assassin among seven conspirators.
Young Bosnia was financed and armed by the Black Hand, a group led by members of the Serbian army, notably an officer known as Apis ("The Bull").
On July $5$ , Kaiser Wilhelm II issued the "Blank Check" to Austria-Hungary, promising support even if war with Russia developed.
On July $23$ , Austria-Hungary issued a $10$ -point ultimatum to Serbia. Key demands included the prosecution of conspirators under Austrian supervision and allowing Austrian officials to operate within Serbia to root out anti-Austrian agitators.
Serbia accepted all conditions except the presence of Austrian officials in their country, suggesting the International Tribunal at the Hague as a mediator.
Austria-Hungary severed diplomatic relations and declared war on July $28, 1914$ .
Russia ordered full mobilization after the failure of the "Willy-Nicky" telegrams between the Tsar and Kaiser to de-escalate the situation.
Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia to stop war measures within $12\,hours$ and to France to stop mobilization; both were ignored.

Diplomatic and Military Escalation (August 1914)

August $1$ : Germany orders full mobilization.
August $2$ : Germany demands free passage through Belgium and begins moving troops.
August $3$ : Germany declares war on France.
August $4$ : Germany declares war on Belgium; Britain responds by declaring war on Germany.
August $6$ : Russia declares war on Austria-Hungary.
August $10$ : Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
August $12$ : France and Britain declare war on Austria-Hungary.
August $23$ : Japan declares war on Germany.

War Aims and Comparative Military Plans

Germany aimed for European prominence and colonial expansion.
Austria-Hungary sought to survive intact and perhaps add minor colonial possessions.
Russia wanted to reclaim prestige from its $1905$ defeat and act as the Slavic Champion to prevent internal revolution.
France sought the return of Alsace-Lorraine.
Britain wanted to eliminate Germany as a rival and preserve its status as the dominant world power.
French Plan XVII: A continuous offensive push east to recapture Alsace-Lorraine, relying on "elan" (a unique French life-force).
German Schlieffen Plan: Designed for a two-front war; it relied on slow Russian mobilization to allow a rapid sweep through Belgium to defeat France before shifting east.
Austria-Hungary Plan B: Prepared specifically for war against Serbia, with three armies attacking and three guarding against Russia.
Russia Plan G: Assumed Germany would focus on the east; called for deep withdrawal into the Russian plain to organize a counterattack.
Russia Plan R: Developed at French urging; involved an immediate offensive against Germany to draw forces away from the west.

The Western Front and Trench Warfare

The Schlieffen Plan faced delays as Belgian fortresses held out until August $16, 1914$ .
Battle of the Marne (September $5-10, 1914$ ): Halted the German advance and led to a stalemate. The first trenches appeared on September $8$ .
The "Race to the Sea" (October $1914$ ): Both sides attempted to outflank the other to the west, eventually resulting in fixed positions from the Swiss border to the North Sea.
Artillery caused $70 \%$ of WWI deaths; the effectiveness of heavy guns against static fortresses forced soldiers to seek cover in trenches.
Trench conditions were grueling, characterized by "trenchfoot" (necrosis and frostbite from cold/wet conditions), rats, and lice in clothing seams.
"Over the top" attacks involved massing troops to rush enemy lines after an artillery barrage, usually resulting in wholesale slaughter.
General Douglas Haig has been criticized for these tactics. At the Battle of the Somme ( $1916$ ), Britain lost $20,000$ men killed and $40,000$ wounded on the first day alone; total Allied deaths reached $600,000$ .
The Somme was launched to relieve French forces at Verdun, where Germany aimed to "bleed France white."

Naval Warfare and the Submarine Threat

Germany initiated unrestricted submarine warfare (USW) on February $2, 1915$ , declaring the waters around Britain a war zone.
Britain retaliated with a naval blockade against Germany in March $1915$ , affecting civilian food supplies.
Germany eventually commissioned $372$ U-boats. Britain countered with hydrophones, depth charges, and "Q-ships" (merchant ships with hidden guns).
The Sinking of the Lusitania (May $7, 1915$ ): A German U-Boat ( $U-20$ ) fired two torpedoes, sinking the liner in $18\,minutes$ . $1,098$ people died, including $128$ Americans.
The Lusitania was carrying $170\,tons$ of supplies, including $4.2\,million$ rounds of ammunition and $1,250$ cases of shell casings. It had been officially labeled an "Armed Merchant Cruiser."
Battle of Jutland (May $31 - June 1, 1916$ ): The only major surface battle between the High Seas Fleet ( $42$ ships) and the Royal Navy ( $151$ ships). Britain lost $14$ ships and $6,097$ troops; Germany lost $10$ ships and $2,551$ troops. There was no clear winner.

Chemical Warfare and Medicine

Gas warfare was first used by Germany at Ypres in April $1915$ , deploying $5,730$ chlorine gas canisters.
Mustard gas was introduced in $1917$ ; it caused massive blisters, blindness, and choking. In its first $16\,months$ of use, it caused $160,526$ British Wounded in Action.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affected roughly $32 \%$ of veterans studied $50\,years$ later.
Chemical weapons were later banned by the Washington Treaty ( $1922$ ) and the Geneva Conference ( $1925$ ).

Aviation and Emerging Technology

Zeppelins were used as strategic bombers. They had a ceiling of $10,000\,feet$ and a speed of $56\,mph$ . In total, raids killed $557$ Britons and caused $\$7,500,000$ in damage over $159$ cities.
Britain developed incendiary bullets to ignite the helium inside Zeppelins.
Tanks were first used by the British at the Somme in $1916$ . The Mark V "Male" version had two $6$ -pound guns and five machine guns.
The French used mechanically reliable Renault tanks, while the Germans developed the massive A7V (crew of $18$ , speed of $8\,mph$ ).
Interrupter gear, developed by Anthony Fokker, allowed machine guns to fire through airplane propellers without hitting the blades.
Famous Aces: Manfred von Richthofen (The Red Baron, $80$ victories), Edward Mannock (Britain, $61$ victories), and Eddie Rickenbacker (USA, $26$ victories).
The Lafayette Escadrille was an American volunteer squadron within the French Air Force that began operations in April $1916$ .

The Collapse of Russia and the US Entry

The Russian Revolution led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II on March $17, 1917$ , followed by the Bolshevik seizure of power under Vladimir Lenin in November.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March $3, 1918$ ) ended Russia's involvement. Russia surrendered the Ukraine, Poland, Finland, the Baltic Republics, and the Caucasus region to Germany.
The United States declared war on April $6, 1917$ , following the Zimmerman Note (a German proposal to Mexico for an alliance against the US) and the resumption of German USW.
The American Expeditionary Force (AEF), commanded by General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing, insisted on fighting as a distinct American unit rather than as replacements for French and British troops.
To supply the force, the US built $1,000\,miles$ of railway track in France and shipped $1,500$ locomotives.

The End of the War and the Armistice

The German Spring Offensive of $1918$ (led by Ludendorff) gained $40\,km$ but was eventually repulsed at the Marne and Chateau-Thierry.
During the Battle of St. Mihiel, Billy Mitchell led $1,400$ aircraft in support of Allied ground troops.
Germany requested an armistice on October $6, 1918$ . After internal revolutions and the Kaiser's abdication on November $9$ , the Armistice was signed.
Fighting stopped at $11:00\,AM$ on November $11, 1918$ . Terms included the evacuation of Belgium/France, the de-militarization of the Rhine, and the continuation of the naval blockade until the final peace treaty.

The Treaty of Versailles

The Big Four (Wilson, Clemenceau, Lloyd George, and Orlando) led the peace conference beginning January $18, 1919$ . Germany and Russia were excluded.
French Goals (Clemenceau): Security, reparations ( $200,000,000$ gold francs estimated), and the weakening of Germany.
British Goals (Lloyd George): Destruction of the German navy, taking colonies, but resuming trade to prevent the spread of communism from the east.
US Goals (Wilson): The Fourteen Points, including self-determination and the League of Nations.
Treaty Provisions: Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine; placed colonies under the mandate system; reduced the army to $100,000$ men; banned U-boats and aircraft; and was charged an initial reparation of $\$15\,billion$ (later set at $132\,billion$ gold marks).
The "Stab in the Back" theory emerged in Germany among those who felt betrayed by the treaty signers since Germany was not occupied at the time of the armistice.
Economist John Maynard Keynes resigned in protest, claiming the reparations would destroy the European economy.

The Home Front and Total War

Total War involved the complete mobilization of industry, agriculture, and culture.
Women's Roles: Munitionettes (called "Canaries" due to yellowing skin from sulfur) produced $80\%$ of ammunition. In Britain, $950,000$ women worked in munitions by the end of the war.
Edith Cavell, a nurse and nun, was executed by Germany for helping prisoners escape.
Rationing: Britain introduced compulsory rationing for meat, butter, and cheese in April $1915$ . In Germany, the blockade led to "kriegsbrot" (war bread) and the slaughter of $1/3$ of German pigs in $1915$ .
Malnutrition caused $763,000$ deaths in Germany officially credited to the blockade.
Legal Control: The British Defense of the Realm Act (DoRA) allowed the government to censor news and seize land. The US Espionage Act ( $1917$ ) and Sedition Act ( $1918$ ) restricted anti-war speech.
Social Impact: Anti-German sentiment in Canada led the town of Berlin to rename itself Kitchener. The British Royal Family changed their name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in $1917$ .