Reading and Writing Skills 1st Quarter
SYNTACTIC HIERARCHY OF LANGUAGE
Morpheme
Word
Phrase
Clause
Sentence
Text
WHAT A TEXT IS
A coherent stretch of language that can be treated as an object of critical analysis.
A subset of nonfiction (Duke & Bennett-Armistead, 2003).
Primary purpose is to inform the reader about the natural or social world.
TYPES OF TEXT
Informational Text
Defined as a type of text whose primary purpose is to inform the reader.
Journalistic Text
Describes an informational text published across various media formats such as print, digital, and radio.
Purpose: To inform the reader about a topic of general interest.
FEATURES OF A JOURNALISTIC TEXT
Headline: The title that captures attention.
Dateline: Indicates when and where the article was written.
Byline: Author's name.
Lead: Opening paragraph summarizing the article's main point.
News Peg: Element of the article that gives it relevance to current events.
Location: Context of where the story is set.
HALLMARKS OF A JOURNALISTIC TEXT
Precision: Accurate expression of facts.
Simplicity: Clarity in language.
Brevity: Conciseness of information.
Balance: Fair presentation of multiple viewpoints.
Objectivity: Neutral tone, presenting facts without bias.
Fairness: Equal treatment of differing opinions.
Accuracy: Factual correctness of the information.
Inverted Pyramid: Structure featuring the most important information at the beginning.
PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING ACROSS DISCIPLINES
Narration: Storytelling
Definition: Explaining terms/phenomena
Persuasion: Arguing a point of view
Classification: Organizing information into categories
Description: Detailed observation of details
Order & Sequence: Structuring information chronologically
Cause & Effect: Examining why things happen
Comparison: Analyzing similarities and differences
Problem & Solution: Addressing issues and outlining resolutions.
EXAMPLES OF PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
NARRATION
Temporal markers: meanwhile, eventually, at last, consequently, initially.
DEFINITION
Addresses the question "What is X?"
Types of Definitions:
Formal
Informal
Stipulative
Lexical
Conceptual
Operational
DESCRIPTION
Phrases Used: moreover, specifically, furthermore, along with.
EXEMPLIFICATION/CLASSIFICATION
Phrases Used: for instance, in particular, including, such as.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Phrases Used: similarly, however, nonetheless, whereas, although.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Phrases Used: hence, consequently, due to, thus, because.
PROBLEM-SOLUTION
Phrases Used: this leads to, therefore, address, tackle.
PERSUASION
Phrases Used: undoubtedly, therefore, notably.
SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION
BRAINSTORMING
Generating ideas spontaneously.
BRAINWRITING
Writing down several ideas anonymously using tools like Mentimeter.
5 WHYS ANALYSIS
A root cause analysis method using successive "why?" questions to identify problems.
Utilizes a Fishbone Diagram to display Cause and Effect relationships.
STARBURSTING
A method eliciting basic information about a topic: who, what, when, where, why, how.
MIND MAPPING
Generating relationships around a central topic; promotes brainstorming by visually organizing concepts.
Tips include using different colors for levels and collaborating online.
ROLE STORMING/FIGURE STORMING
Ideas generated by assuming different roles.
GAP ANALYSIS
Identification of current state versus end goals across various areas.
BRAIN-NETTING
Virtual collaboration for idea sharing and saving in real-time.
ROUND ROBIN BRAINSTORMING
Posing a question and allowing contributions from each participant in turn.
RAPID IDEATION
Working under time constraints to generate ideas.
REVERSE BRAINSTORMING
Generating ideas about how to cause a problem as a form of analysis.
STEPLADDER BRAINSTORMING
Participants contribute ideas independently before group discussion.
SWOT ANALYSIS
Evaluating Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats regarding a project or organization.
Strengths: Internal advantageous resources.
Weaknesses: Internal hurdles limiting success.
Opportunities: External favorable factors to exploit.
Threats: External obstacles causing potential issues.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Visual tools to represent knowledge and structure information, highlighting organization and relationships of concepts.
Common types include:
6 Step Cycle
4 Circle Web
Cause and Effect diagrams
Frayer Model
Word Study Diagram
Story Map
Compare and Contrast Chart
Concept Map
Tree Diagram (3-level)
OUTLINING
TOPIC OUTLINE
Uses single words or brief phrases for headings.
Example:
I. Economical effects
A. Alcohol
1. Cost of alcohol purchases
2. Cost of DUIs
B. Drugs
1. Cost of drug purchases
2. Cost of drug arrests
SENTENCE OUTLINE
Lists headings as complete sentences for clarity and detail.
Example:
I. Alcohol and drug abuse can affect one economically.
A. The cost of alcohol abuse is high and gets higher.
B. The cost of drug abuse can be high.
PROPERTIES OF A WRITTEN TEXT
ORGANIZATION
Logically arranged ideas including thesis, details, facts, definitions, counterarguments, etc.
COHERENCE AND COHESION
Logical connection of sentences and ideas through various organizational methods.
LANGUAGE USE
Correctness and appropriateness in vocabulary, tone, and grammar.
MECHANICS
Necessary writing conventions including spelling, punctuation, and grammar rules.
CRITICAL READING
KEY ELEMENTS
AUTHORIAL POSITION: Understanding the author's perspective.
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE: Examining the evidence provided in the text.
INTERPRETATION: Gleaning meaning beyond what is explicitly stated.
QUESTIONING: Engaging with the text's claims critically.
REFLECTING: Considering personal responses and broader implications.
EVALUATING PERSUASION
ELEMENTS OF PERSUASIVE WRITING
Claim: A statement that the author argues.
Grounds: Evidence supporting the claim.
Warrant: Logical reasoning connecting grounds to the claim.
Backing: Additional support for the claim.
Qualifier: Limitations on the claim's validity.
Rebuttal: Counter-evidence or frameworks addressing opposing views.
FALLACIES IN LOGIC
COMMON LOGICAL FALLACIES
Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant issues to distract.
Bandwagon: Claiming validity based on popularity.
Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument.
Genetic Fallacy: Judging based on the origin of the argument.
Begging the Question: Assuming the conclusion in the premise.
Slippery Slope: Claiming one action will trigger extreme adverse outcomes.
Ad Populum: Validity accepted based on majority belief.
Post Hoc: Assuming causation from mere correlation.
Appeal to Pity: Convincing through emotional manipulation instead of evidence.
Ad Hominem: Attacking the argument by discrediting the individual.
Base Rate Fallacy: Ignoring general statistical information.
Sunk Cost Fallacy: Persisting due to already invested resources.
Pathetic Fallacy: Attributing human emotions to non-human entities.
Fallacy of Composition: Assuming what is true for the part is true for the whole.
Fallacy of Division: Assuming what is true for the whole is also true for individual parts.
Morpheme
Word
Phrase
Clause
Sentence
Text
WHAT A TEXT IS
A coherent stretch of language that can be treated as an object of critical analysis.
A subset of nonfiction (Duke & Bennett-Armistead, 2003).
Primary purpose is to inform the reader about the natural or social world.
TYPES OF TEXT
Informational Text
Defined as a type of text whose primary purpose is to inform the reader.
Journalistic Text
Describes an informational text published across various media formats such as print, digital, and radio.
Purpose: To inform the reader about a topic of general interest.
FEATURES OF A JOURNALISTIC TEXT
Headline: The title that captures attention.
Dateline: Indicates when and where the article was written.
Byline: Author's name.
Lead: Opening paragraph summarizing the article's main point.
News Peg: Element of the article that gives it relevance to current events.
Location: Context of where the story is set.
HALLMARKS OF A JOURNALISTIC TEXT
Precision: Accurate expression of facts.
Simplicity: Clarity in language.
Brevity: Conciseness of information.
Balance: Fair presentation of multiple viewpoints.
Objectivity: Neutral tone, presenting facts without bias.
Fairness: Equal treatment of differing opinions.
Accuracy: Factual correctness of the information.
Inverted Pyramid: Structure featuring the most important information at the beginning.
PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING ACROSS DISCIPLINES
Narration: Storytelling
Definition: Explaining terms/phenomena
Persuasion: Arguing a point of view
Classification: Organizing information into categories
Description: Detailed observation of details
Order & Sequence: Structuring information chronologically
Cause & Effect: Examining why things happen
Comparison: Analyzing similarities and differences
Problem & Solution: Addressing issues and outlining resolutions.
EXAMPLES OF PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
NARRATION
Temporal markers: meanwhile, eventually, at last, consequently, initially.
DEFINITION
Addresses the question "What is X?"
Types of Definitions:
Formal
Informal
Stipulative
Lexical
Conceptual
Operational
DESCRIPTION
Phrases Used: moreover, specifically, furthermore, along with.
EXEMPLIFICATION/CLASSIFICATION
Phrases Used: for instance, in particular, including, such as.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Phrases Used: similarly, however, nonetheless, whereas, although.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Phrases Used: hence, consequently, due to, thus, because.
PROBLEM-SOLUTION
Phrases Used: this leads to, therefore, address, tackle.
PERSUASION
Phrases Used: undoubtedly, therefore, notably.
SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION
BRAINSTORMING
Generating ideas spontaneously.
BRAINWRITING
Writing down several ideas anonymously using tools like Mentimeter.
5 WHYS ANALYSIS
A root cause analysis method using successive "why?" questions to identify problems.
Utilizes a Fishbone Diagram to display Cause and Effect relationships.
STARBURSTING
A method eliciting basic information about a topic: who, what, when, where, why, how.
MIND MAPPING
Generating relationships around a central topic; promotes brainstorming by visually organizing concepts.
Tips include using different colors for levels and collaborating online.
ROLE STORMING/FIGURE STORMING
Ideas generated by assuming different roles.
GAP ANALYSIS
Identification of current state versus end goals across various areas.
BRAIN-NETTING
Virtual collaboration for idea sharing and saving in real-time.
ROUND ROBIN BRAINSTORMING
Posing a question and allowing contributions from each participant in turn.
RAPID IDEATION
Working under time constraints to generate ideas.
REVERSE BRAINSTORMING
Generating ideas about how to cause a problem as a form of analysis.
STEPLADDER BRAINSTORMING
Participants contribute ideas independently before group discussion.
SWOT ANALYSIS
Evaluating Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats regarding a project or organization.
Strengths: Internal advantageous resources.
Weaknesses: Internal hurdles limiting success.
Opportunities: External favorable factors to exploit.
Threats: External obstacles causing potential issues.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Visual tools to represent knowledge and structure information, highlighting organization and relationships of concepts.
Common types include:
6 Step Cycle
4 Circle Web
Cause and Effect diagrams
Frayer Model
Word Study Diagram
Story Map
Compare and Contrast Chart
Concept Map
Tree Diagram (3-level)
OUTLINING
TOPIC OUTLINE
Uses single words or brief phrases for headings.
Example:
I. Economical effects
A. Alcohol
1. Cost of alcohol purchases
2. Cost of DUIs
B. Drugs
1. Cost of drug purchases
2. Cost of drug arrests
SENTENCE OUTLINE
Lists headings as complete sentences for clarity and detail.
Example:
I. Alcohol and drug abuse can affect one economically.
A. The cost of alcohol abuse is high and gets higher.
B. The cost of drug abuse can be high.
PROPERTIES OF A WRITTEN TEXT
ORGANIZATION
Logically arranged ideas including thesis, details, facts, definitions, counterarguments, etc.
COHERENCE AND COHESION
Logical connection of sentences and ideas through various organizational methods.
LANGUAGE USE
Correctness and appropriateness in vocabulary, tone, and grammar.
MECHANICS
Necessary writing conventions including spelling, punctuation, and grammar rules.
CRITICAL READING
KEY ELEMENTS
AUTHORIAL POSITION: Understanding the author's perspective.
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE: Examining the evidence provided in the text.
INTERPRETATION: Gleaning meaning beyond what is explicitly stated.
QUESTIONING: Engaging with the text's claims critically.
REFLECTING: Considering personal responses and broader implications.
EVALUATING PERSUASION
ELEMENTS OF PERSUASIVE WRITING
Claim: A statement that the author argues.
Grounds: Evidence supporting the claim.
Warrant: Logical reasoning connecting grounds to the claim.
Backing: Additional support for the claim.
Qualifier: Limitations on the claim's validity.
Rebuttal: Counter-evidence or frameworks addressing opposing views.
FALLACIES IN LOGIC
COMMON LOGICAL FALLACIES
Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant issues to distract.
Bandwagon: Claiming validity based on popularity.
Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument.
Genetic Fallacy: Judging based on the origin of the argument.
Begging the Question: Assuming the conclusion in the premise.
Slippery Slope: Claiming one action will trigger extreme adverse outcomes.
Ad Populum: Validity accepted based on majority belief.
Post Hoc: Assuming causation from mere correlation.
Appeal to Pity: Convincing through emotional manipulation instead of evidence.
Ad Hominem: Attacking the argument by discrediting the individual.
Base Rate Fallacy: Ignoring general statistical information.
Sunk Cost Fallacy: Persisting due to already invested resources.
Pathetic Fallacy: Attributing human emotions to non-human entities.
Fallacy of Composition: Assuming what is true for the part is true for the whole.
Fallacy of Division: Assuming what is true for the whole is also true for individual