Unit 5 - Political Participation

Unit 5: Political Participation

I. LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS

  • Definition: Organizations that are connected and interact with the government.

  • Types of Linkage Institutions:
      - Political Parties:
        - #1 goal is to win elections and hold political office.
      - Elections:
        - Citizens vote for candidates.
        - #1 example of participatory democracy for Americans.
      - Interest Groups:
        - A group of people who focus on specific causes or rights and seek to influence the government.
      - Media:
        - Broadcasts information for the general public.

II. POLITICAL PARTIES

  • Functions of Political Parties:
      1. Develop platforms.
      2. Recruit candidates.
      3. Provide financial support for campaigns.
      4. Get the name/message out.

  • Two-Party System:
      - The U.S. has a two-party system (no mention of political parties in the Constitution).
      - The United States’ two major parties have changed over time.
        - Realignment: Refers to the switching of party loyalty by important voting groups.
        - Dealignment: Refers to the process of voters detaching from a political party and becoming independent.
      - Winner-Take-All System:
        - The party that receives at least one more vote than another party wins the election.

  • Minor/Third Parties:
      - A political party that plays a much smaller role.
      - Types of Minor Parties:
        1. Single-Issue Parties (e.g., Free Soil Party).
        2. Splinter Parties (e.g., Dixiecrats).
        3. Economic Protest Parties (e.g., Populist).
        4. Ideological Parties (e.g., Socialist Party).

III. INTEREST GROUPS

  • Definition: Interest groups are organizations of people who come together to advance a common cause.
      - Interest groups DO NOT run candidates for office or concern themselves with political issues outside of their areas of interest.

  • Functions of Interest Groups:
      1. Lobbying Congress.
      2. Lobbying the Executive Branch.
      3. Lobbying the Courts:
         - Amicus Curiae Briefs: Legal documents submitted by non-litigants with a strong interest in the case.
      4. Grassroots Lobbying:
         - Encourage people to contact their congressional representatives directly to affect policy.
      5. Protest and Radical Activism.
      6. Candidate Recruitment and Endorsements.
      7. Getting Out the Vote.
      8. Political Action Committees (PACs):
         - Interest groups use these to raise and spend money on campaigns.
         - Through PACs, interest groups offer financial contributions to political campaigns.

  • Examples of Interest Groups:
      1. American Association of Retired Persons (AARP).
      2. American Bar Association (ABA).
      3. American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).
      4. League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC).
      5. Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD).
      6. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
      7. National Rifle Association (NRA).
      8. National Right to Life Committee.
      9. National Organization for Women (NOW).
      10. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA).

IV. ELECTIONS

  • Types of Elections:
      - Primary Elections: Voters decide which candidates within a party will represent the party in the general election.
        - Closed Primary: Only a party’s registered voters are eligible to vote.
        - Open Primary: Party members, independents, and sometimes members of other parties can vote.
        - Runoff Primary: A second primary between the two candidates receiving the most votes in the first primary.
      - General Elections: Voters decide which candidates will fill elective public offices.
      - Midterm Elections: House and Senate members run for election between presidential elections if their term is up.
      - Other State Elections:
        - Initiative: An election allowing citizens to propose legislation for popular vote.
        - Referendum: Election whereby the state legislature submits proposed legislation to the state’s voters for approval.
        - Recall: Election whereby voters can remove an incumbent from office by popular vote.

Phase of Election

  • Nominations: Primaries & Caucuses are held in each state for both major parties to see which candidates delegates vote for.
      - Primaries: Voters express their preferences on a ballot.
      - First primary state: New Hampshire.

  • National Convention: Both political parties hold a convention to officially nominate their candidates and write their platforms.

  • General Election: On election day, each state's popular vote determines how many electoral votes each candidate receives.
      - Winner-Take-All in 48 states: Maine and Nebraska use Congressional District Method.

B. Electoral College

  • The U.S. chooses its president through the Electoral College, not by direct popular election.

  • Constitutional Basis: Article II, Section 1 of the Constitution.

  • Each state has a total number of electoral votes equal to its number of seats in Congress:
      - Total Electors: 538 (435 House + 100 Senate + 3 D.C.).

  • 23rd Amendment (1961): Granted Washington, D.C. 3 electoral votes.

  • A candidate needs 270 votes to win election.

  • If no candidate reaches 270, the winner is chosen by the House of Representatives, each state having one vote.

  • Electors: Party members chosen and pledge to vote for their party’s nominee upon winning the popular vote in their state.

  • Electors can vote for someone other than the candidate they promised to, though this is infrequent and has never affected an election's outcome.

C. Incumbent Advantage and Disadvantages

  • Incumbent: The officeholder seeking reelection.

  • Advantages:
      1. Name Recognition.
      2. Money.
      3. Presence/Experience.
      4. Franking Privilege: Lawmakers can send materials to citizens within their states/districts at taxpayer expense.
      5. Coattail Effect: Congressional candidates can often benefit from the popularity of their party’s presidential candidate.

  • Disadvantages:
      - Poor economy can affect reelection prospects.

D. Campaign Finance

  • Federal Elections Commission (FEC): An independent agency created to monitor and enforce campaign regulations.

  • Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971: Placed limits on contributions from individuals and PACs.

  • Types of Contributions:
      - Hard Money:
        - Direct donations given to candidates for campaigning.
        - Subject to limits.
      - Soft Money:
        - Donations to political parties which are unlimited.
      - Dark Money:
        - Donations made anonymously for “general party building.”

  • McCain-Feingold Act/Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002):
      - Banned soft money contributions to national parties.
      - Increased limits on hard money donations per election cycle:
        1. $2,000 from individuals.
        2. $5,000 from PACs.
        3. $25,000 from national parties.
      - Prohibited corporations, trade associations, and labor organizations from paying for electioneering communications using treasuries within 60 days of the general election and 30 days of a primary.

  • Citizens United vs. FEC (2010):
      - Facts of the Case: Citizens United, a conservative nonprofit organization, was prohibited from releasing "Hillary: The Movie," which negatively portrayed Hillary Clinton.
      - Constitutional Issue: Did the BCRA ban on election advertising violate the First Amendment right to free speech? Did Citizens United, a nonprofit corporation, have this First Amendment right?
      - Holding: The ban did violate the First Amendment right to free speech and was unconstitutional. Citizens United does have free speech rights.

E. Types of Organizations

  • PAC (Political Action Committee):
      - Collects funds from members and distributes funds to candidates and political causes.
      - Federal law places limits on contributions to PACs.
      - Required to disclose donors.

  • Super PAC:
      - Collects and spends unlimited amounts.
      - May not coordinate with candidates or campaigns.
      - Required to disclose donors.

V. MEDIA

  • Types of Media:
      1. Print Media.
      2. Radio News.
      3. Television News.
      4. Internet/Social Media.

  • Functions of the Media:
      - Gatekeeper: Decides what makes the news.
      - Scorekeeper: Reports successes and failures.
        - Horse Race Journalism: Focus on election periods.
      - Watchdog: Reports scandals and corruption.

References

  • Fenton, Nancy and Olson-Goldman, Katherine. Crash Course: AP U.S. Government and Politics. Research & Education Association, 2020.

  • Wolfford, David. Advanced Placement Edition: United States Government and Politics. Amsco School Publications, Inc., 2020.