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Studied by 182 people
History of Georgia
Colchis- mitopoethical and historical perception
colchis as part of greek and persian world
foundation of kindom of iberia
iberian society according to strabo
mithridatic wars and iberia
pompey’s expedition in caucasus
iberian-roman relationship
coversion of Kartli into christianity
Colchis- mitopoethical and historical perception
concept of clochis is both mythical and historical, with deep roots in acient greek mythology and histroical accounts of region
Mythopoetical perception:
colchis is most famously known in greek myths as land of Golden Fleece, destination of Jason and the Argonaunts.
fleece was guarded by King Aeëtes of Colchis, and Jason, with the help of the sorceress Medea stole it.
n Greek mythopoetics, Colchis was seen as a distant and exotic land, rich in natural resources like gold
Historical perception:
significant trade center in the ancient world. Archaeological findings show that Colchis had a highly developed culture and played a key role in regional trade networks.
The Greeks eventually colonized the Black Sea region, including Colchis, around the 6th century BCE. The Greek city-states established trade relations with the local population, blending Greek and Colchian cultures.
Colchis was also strategically important, acting as a cultural and political bridge between the Greek world and the Caucasus.
It was involved in the power struggles between larger empires such as Persia, and later Rome, and functioned as an important buffer region.
euxeinos pontos vs axenios pontus
reek names for the Black Sea, but they carry different connotations, reflecting the evolving Greek perception of the sea and its surrounding regions.
1. Axenios Pontos (Ἄξενος Πόντος) – “Inhospitable Sea”
The term Axenios means “inhospitable” or “unwelcoming.” This was the earlier name given by the ancient Greeks to the Black Sea.
ts unpredictable weather, violent storms, and difficult navigation contributed to this negative reputation.
The coastline was inhabited by various indigenous peoples whom the Greeks saw as “barbaric” or hostile
2. Euxeinos Pontos (Εὔξεινος Πόντος) – “Hospitable Sea”
Over time, the Greeks renamed the sea Euxeinos Pontos, meaning the “Hospitable Sea.” This change in name reflects a shift in perception from negative to positive.
As Greek colonization spread along the Black Sea coast from the 7th century BCE onward, Greek settlements were established in places like Byzantium (modern Istanbul), Sinope, Odessa, and Phasis (Colchis).
Herodotus, II, 104
• Colchians’ Egyptian Origins: Herodotus suggests that the Colchians are descendants of Egyptians, based on personal observation and inquiry. He notes that the Colchians have better memory of their Egyptian heritage than the Egyptians do of them.
Colchis as part of greek and persian world
6th century B.C., a new player, in the form of the Persian empire, appeared in the Caucasus.
Colchis fell under Persian influence during the reign of King Darius I (522–486 BCE) as part of the Achaemenid Empire’s territorial expansion.
Darius reorganized the empire into 20 satrapies, which served as the primary administrative divisions. Each satrapy was governed by a satrap (governor) appointed by the king.
Colchis was part of the 19th satrapy of the Persian Empire. However, unlike most satrapies, Colchis was not directly governed by Persian administrators.
Colchis was required to pay tribute but retained a degree of autonomy in its internal affairs.
Persian control over Colchis was likely indirect. The mountainous and forested terrain of the region made direct governance difficult
Persian influence brought about increased interaction between Colchis and other parts of the Achaemenid Empire, fostering cultural exchange and enhancing Colchis’s role in the regional trade network.
in 4th 5th century Herodotus noted Colchis and its neighbors as part of the Persian sphere of influence but not directly under Persian rule.
The archaeological findings, such as Achaemenid silver vessels in Colchis, indicate trade and cultural exchanges, showcasing the economic interdependence between the Persians and local populations.
During the Greco-Persian Wars (480 B.C.), Colchis and other Caucasian peoples joined Xerxes’ army, indicating their obligation to participate in military operations due to Persian influence.
Xenophon's (greek solider) account is important because he directly says that the people of the South Caucasus and its neighboring regions did not obey the Achaemenid king. Moreover, the Macrones knew that the Greek army was the enemy of the Persians, although they still helped them. In another section, Xenophon again lists those tribes that do not declare obedience to the Persian king.
Foundation of Iberia
In the second half of the 4th century, global changes took place in the ancient world. Alexander the Great launched a great campaign against Achaemenid Persia, which resulted in the destruction of Persia and the disintegration of its empire.
After Alexander's death, a long series of conflicts between his comrades and friends began for his succession. This period, which lasted more than 40 years, is known as the Diadochos Wars.
A new historical epoch began called the Hellenistic era, and new states and new culture arose. The world transitioned to a different level of development.
The Georgian historical traditions dates the creation of The kingdom of Iberia/ Kartli to this era of geopolitical changes.
Before the creation of the Kingdom of Kartli, we had only Greco-Roman written sources and archeological excavation data about Georgia in the ancient period
Greco-Roman sources do not write anything about the story of the foundation of the Kingdom of Kartli.
Insert: Why is the Greco-Roman world not interested in the Caucasus?
In the Hellenistic era, B.C. In the III-II centuries, Greece lost its importance as a political-cultural center. Consequently, the Greek polis had less political and cultural interests in the Black Sea basin and the Caucasus.
According to "Mokjemai Kartlisai", Alexander conquered Kartli and left the king's son Azo as its ruler. This source mentions Azos as the first king of Kartli, who evicted the inhabitants of his kingdom from Arian-Kartli.
Archaeological findings indicate battles in Eastern Georgia during Azo’s time, suggesting a conflict between Azo (possibly a foreigner) and Farnavaz (a local elite).
• Farnavaz emerged victorious over Azo and initiated significant reforms, dividing Kartli into administrative units and establishing a system of tax collection. He is seen as the foundation of the kingdom due to his local origins and support.
The kingdom’s division into regions considered local traditions and geographical conditions, highlighting Farnavaz’s role as a unifier.
Iberian society according to Strabo
After the collapse of Achaemenid Persia and the death of Alexander the Great, Pharnavaz took advantage of the power vacuum in the region and united an important part of the Georgian territory, including the modern Southern Western parts of Georgia.
Though on the edge of the Hellenistic sphere, it was part of that cultural world, unlike the more isolated Colchis in the west.
Strengthened trade and culture in Dioscurias (modern Sukhum), described as ethnically and culturally diverse.
we have 4 clans in kartli. 1. Royal Clan: Provided not just kings but also judges and military leaders. 2. Priestly Clan: Oversaw religious functions and administered the law. 3. Warrior and Farmer Clan: Consisted of soldiers and agricultural workers, reflecting a division between military and farming roles. 4. Royal Slaves: Handled agricultural and pastoral labor, showing a reliance on slave labor in the kingdom.
Strabo mentioned that the judicial and military power was separate from the king, handled by another family member. However, this conflicts with local sources like the “Life of Kartli,” which suggests the king directly led military operations.
Diplomatic Role: Strabo suggested that priests handled diplomacy and foreign relations, another claim disputed by other historical accounts, which emphasize the king’s involvement in state matters.
Mountain People:
• Lived in a warlike manner, akin to nomadic tribes like the Scythians and Sarmatians.
Only nobles in the lowlands were buried with weapons, reflecting a hierarchical society.
• Likely had close ties with these nomadic peoples and shared a warrior culture.
Lowland People:
• More peaceful, engaged in agriculture, and influenced by Iranian (Median) cultural traditions.
In contrast, in the mountains, even common people were buried with weapons, highlighting the warrior culture in these regions.
• Strabo noted that lowland people were equipped similarly to the Armenians and Medes
Developed Cities: According to Strabo, Kartli had a well-developed urban life with markets and public institutions, indicating a high level of societal organization.
Advanced Architecture: Strabo described Kartli’s cities as having buildings that were quite sophisticated for the time, with notable public spaces that reflected a thriving urban culture.
The Armazi cult was central, blending ancient Georgian and Persian elements (like Zoroastrian influences).
Strabo mentioned the polytheistic nature of the society, with multiple deities being worshipped.
Diverse Trading Center: Kartli’s cities, particularly those like Dioscuria (modern Sukhum), were described by Strabo as cosmopolitan trading hubs, where different ethnicities and cultures intersected, fostering economic prosperity.
Mithridatic wars and iberia
By the 1st century B.C., Colchis became a part of the Kingdom of Pontus under Mithridates
Despite Colchis’ weakened state and lack of centralized governance, it was crucial for Mithridates due to its resources, including timber for shipbuilding and access to a coastline vital for fleet construction.
Mithridates initially installed his son as the ruler of Colchis to suppress local unrest, as Colchis had rebelled against Pontic control.
While Mithridates controlled the coastal regions of Colchis, the mountainous areas, such as those inhabited by the Svans, remained independent. The Svans were known for their bravery, physical strength, and gold collection techniques.
the Kingdom of Kartli faced pressure from Armenia under Tigranes the Great, who expanded Armenia’s territories, diminishing Kartli’s influence in the South Caucasus. Kartli likely became an ally or fell under Armenian influence during this period.
Pompey’s Campaign: During the Third Mithridatic War (66-65 B.C.), the Roman general Pompey pursued Mithridates into the Caucasus. The Kingdom of Kartli initially resisted Roman forces, but after a series of battles, including a major engagement at the Aragvi River, Kartli surrendered. Its king, Artag, was forced to negotiate terms with Pompey, offering hostages and accepting Roman dominance.
Roman Expansion: Rome’s victory over Mithridates and the subsequent campaigns of Pompey brought the Caucasus, including Kartli and Colchis, into the Roman sphere of influence.colchis was placed under the governance of a Roman-appointed ruler, Aristarchus, while Kartli retained some autonomy but was effectively subordinated to Rome.
Pompey’s expeditions in Caucasus
Pompey the Great’s expedition into the Caucasus took place during the Third Mithridatic War (75–63 B.C.) as part of his broader campaign against Mithridates VI of Pontus and his ally, Tigranes II of Armenia
Chasing Mithridates: After losing battles, Mithridates ran to the northern areas near the Caucasus, so Pompey followed him to defeat any remaining enemies.
By controlling the regions surrounding the Black Sea, Rome could protect its eastern provinces and secure critical trade routes. The Caucasus was a strategic area between Europe and Asia, important for maintaining Roman power in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond.
King Artoces of Iberia initially resisted Roman control. Pompey marched into Iberia, encountering fierce resistance. The Iberians were known as formidable warriors, using the natural geography (mountains and rivers) to their advantage.
Battles: In a famous battle along the Cyaneus River (possibly the Kura River in Georgia), Pompey’s forces clashed with the Iberians. Despite the difficult terrain and strong opposition, Pompey’s disciplined legions were able to overpower the Iberian forces.
Aftermath: Following his defeat, King Artoces eventually sued for peace and agreed to become a Roman ally. This agreement helped secure Rome’s influence in the region without direct occupation.
he wanted albania too
King Oroeses of Albania also posed a challenge. The Albanians were a powerful tribe, known for their cavalry and ability to wage guerrilla warfare. Initially, they launched a surprise attack on Pompey during a festival, hoping to catch the Romans off guard.
Battle of the River Abas: This battle took place near the River Abas (modern-day Alazani River). Despite the surprise attack and the challenging conditions (including rough terrain), Pompey’s forces managed to repel the Albanians and defeat them.
Aftermath: King Oroeses surrendered after his defeat. Like the Iberians, the Albanians agreed to become Roman allies. This helped Pompey neutralize a major potential threat to Roman power in the region.
Iberian-roman relationship
Initial Contact: After the civil wars in Rome, which weakened its grip on the Caucasus, the Parthian Empire emerged as a new power. This change opened opportunities for Kartli.
In this context, Kartli sought to establish relations with Rome as a counterbalance to Parthian influence.
By the late 1st century B.C., Kartli began formal diplomatic engagements with Rome. The mutual interest in countering Parthian power led to an alliance.
Under King Parnabadzos, Kartli aligned closely with Rome, which helped the kingdom to reinforce its position against Parthia.
During the reign of Emperor Augustus, Kartli became a crucial ally of Rome. The kingdom’s military support was vital for Rome’s attempts to exert influence over Armenia, a region contested between Rome and Parthia.
Pharsmanes I played a significant role in strengthening Kartli. His military campaigns successfully challenged Parthian dominance and helped establish a friendly king in Armenia, thereby expanding Kartli’s influence.
Kartli, allied with Roman forces, engaged in military campaigns against Parthian forces. These conflicts were significant for establishing Kartli as a dominant power in the region.
The alliance with Rome fostered cultural exchanges, evident through archaeological finds such as Roman coins, pottery, and inscriptions in Kartli. These artifacts indicate strong trade and cultural links.
while Kartli thrived as an independent kingdom, Colchis (to the west of Kartli) struggled to maintain its autonomy. Colchis fell under increasing Roman influence and became a client state by the end of the 1st century B.C.
Conversion of kartli into christianity
Christianity began to penetrate Georgia as early as the 1st century, with traditions suggesting that St. Andrew, one of Christ’s apostles, preached there. This laid the groundwork for future conversions.
The 3rd century was marked by the decline of the Roman Empire, which faced internal crises, economic troubles, and external threats, particularly from the Sasanian Empire that replaced the Parthian Empire in 224 AD.
The Sasanian Empire adopted an aggressive foreign policy, expanding its influence in the Caucasus, which included Armenia and later Kartli (Georgia).
The late 3rd century saw the rise of Emperor Diocletian, who reformed the Roman Empire and reasserted its power, leading to the Peace of Nisibis (299 AD) with Iran. This peace allowed Rome to reclaim influence over Kartli, re-establishing it as a Roman client state.
The pivotal figure in the Christianization of Kartli is St. Nino, a Cappadocian woman who traveled from Jerusalem to Armenia and then to Georgia.
• According to tradition, St. Nino healed Queen Nana of Kartli,which led to the conversion of King Mirian around 326 AD.
King Mirian’s request to Emperor Constantine for priests signified a political alliance with Rome and a desire for cultural integration into the Christian world.
• The Edict of Milan (313 AD) by Constantine legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire, paving the way for its acceptance in Kartli.
The adoption of Christianity reinforced royal power, with kings gaining legitimacy through their association with the Church.
By the 2nd half of the 4th century, the geopolitical situation shifted again. The rise of Shapur II of the Sasanian Empire posed a renewed threat to the stability of the region, including Kartli.
• The conflict between Rome and Iran during this period diminished Roman influence and increased Iranian pressure on Kartli.
• Despite pressures from both empires, Kartli maintained a degree of autonomy until the early 5th century. The region navigated the geopolitical turmoil through alliances and assertive diplomacy.
vakhtang’s reforms
The Sasanian Empire, also known as Sassanid Iran, sought to strengthen its hold over the Caucasus. to abolish the Kartli monarchy, impose Zoroastrianism, and control key passes, like the Dariali Pass, crucial for defending against nomadic invasions from the north.
Byzantium (the Eastern Roman Empire) also competed for influence in the Caucasus.
The Sasanian Empire wielded considerable influence over Kartli’s feudal lords, encouraging them to convert to Zoroastrianism and promise allegiance to Iran.
This undermined the authority of the Kartli monarchy and created division within the kingdom’s ruling elite.
Kartli’s central government was struggling to maintain control over the nobility, as feudal lords were gaining more autonomy, claiming hereditary rights to govern lands, and resisting central authority.
The church played a significant role in society, and some clergy members wielded substantial influence. The Sasanian-backed nobles, seeking control over the church, posed a threat to royal power
Vakhtang initiated reforms to align the church more closely with the monarchy, consolidating both political and religious authority.
Vakhtang participated in Sasanian military campaigns but later sought to secure the kingdom’s borders, fortify defenses, and maintain Kartli’s autonomy.
Vakhtang established diplomatic ties with Byzantium, seeing it as a potential ally against Iran. His marriages—first to a Sasanian princess and later to a Byzantine princess—reflect his strategic approach to balancing power.
Vakhtang began relocating the capital from Mtskheta to Tbilisi, aiming to strengthen his control and build a more centralized government.
Arabian rule
The period of Arab rule in Georgia began in the mid-7th century after the Arab Caliphate expanded rapidly following the spread of Islam.
n 654, under the leadership of Habib Ibn Maslama, the Arabs entered Kartli, a key region in eastern Georgia, ruled at that time by Stefanoz II.
Stefanoz II sought peace by sending gifts to the Arab commander, who accepted them as tribute, establishing a protective agreement called a “deed of protection.”
Converting to Islam exempted individuals from the tax, as they would then be considered Muslims and thus part of the faith community.
Although the Arab rule over Georgia lasted for about 300 years, it was neither uniform nor stable.
In 682, Georgians joined Armenians and Albanians in an anti-Arab revolt, supported by the Byzantine emperor.
Muhammad Merwan, an Arab commander, launched new military campaigns, conquering Armenia and parts of Georgia. Georgian rulers, particularly in Western Georgia, often allied with the Khazars or Byzantine Empire to resist Arab rule.
Arab Caliphate established the Emirate of Tbilisi in eastern Georgia, cementing a more direct rule over the region.
The Emirate was a military-administrative unit governed by an Amir, who oversaw civil and military matters.
The Emirate of Tbilisi also became increasingly autonomous as the Caliphate’s control weakened.
9th century, Ashot I, a Georgian nobleman, rose as a key figure in the resistance against Arab dominance. With support from the Byzantine Empire, Ashot I and his descendants successfully pushed back against the Arab presence, reclaiming territories and consolidating Georgian power. This marked a gradual decline of the Emirate’s control over Tbilisi and foreshadowed the end of Arab rule in the region.
Georgia’s kingdoms
kakheti-eastern georgia originally part of the Kingdom of Kartli, but by the 8th and 9th centuries, it began to evolve into an independent political entity.
during grigol’s reign was marked by attempts to annex neighboring regions, such as Shida Kartli, but he faced military challenges, particularly from the ruler of Kartli, Ashot I, and from the Arab forces. Despite setbacks, Kakheti continued to grow stronger and more autonomous.
he combined political and religious authority, a significant power base that allowed him to consolidate control.
hereti modern-day azerbaijan was originally under the control of Kartli
As the Arabs’ influence weakened, local authorities in Hereti gained greater independence. as Kartli weakened due to Arab invasions, Hereti gradually gained autonomy.
The Alazani River provided essential irrigation, making it one of Georgia’s most agriculturally productive areas.
river alazani provided essential irrigation making hereti very good place for agriculture.
Hereti, like Kakheti, developed strong agricultural and trade networks, specializing in wine, wheat, and other crops, which supported its independence and prosperity.
With the decline of central authority, local leaders in Hereti established their autonomy.
abkhazia
emerged in the 8th century from the remnants of the Kingdom of Egrisi (Lazica)
Under Byzantine influence, Egrisi dissolved in the 7th century,
In the early 8th century, the Byzantine Empire transferred control of the region to Stephanoz, a local Georgian noble, in exchange for loyalty.
The capital was established in Kutaisi, strategically located on key trade routes.
tao
was established by Ashot I Bagrationi, a nobleman who, after fleeing Arab-dominated Kartli, sought refuge in southwestern Georgia.
was established by Ashot I Bagrationi, a nobleman who, after fleeing Arab-dominated Kartli, sought refuge in southwestern Georgia.
After Ashot’s death, his sons divided his territories among themselves, creating a fragmented realm that remained loosely united under a nominally supreme ruler. This internal division hindered Tao-Klarjeti’s potential as a centralized kingdom.
he rulers of Tao-Klarjeti maintained a nominal allegiance to Byzantium, which conferred courtly titles like Kurapalates and Magistros upon them, reinforcing their standing.
ts location allowed the Bagrationi rulers to establish political independence while still interacting diplomatically with the Byzantine Empire.
Under the Bagrationi dynasty, Tao-Klarjeti became a center of Georgian culture and Orthodoxy,
Tao-Klarjeti became known for its monasteries and educational centers. Ashot I initiated a large-scale monastic building program, establishing monasteries that became centers of learning, culture, and literacy.
colchis, lazika
Around the 4th century BCE, Colchis began to lose its autonomy and power due to internal and external pressures, gradually transforming into the kingdom of Lazika, a political entity that emerged in the region by the 1st century CE.
The decline of Colchis was partly due to internal instability and fragmentation into small, competing principalities. This political fragmentation weakened Colchis, making it vulnerable to outside influence.
he Laz people, an ancient Kartvelian (Georgian) ethnic group, became the dominant cultural and political group in the region.
Their influence transformed the former territories of Colchis into a new kingdom called Lazika, which incorporated elements of Colchian culture while adapting to new political realities.
Lazika emerged as a significant political entity in the region, especially from the 4th to 6th centuries
Lazika was the center of the Lazic War (541–562 CE), a prolonged conflict between Byzantium and Persia.
Christianity spread widely in Lazika, with the kingdom adopting it as the state religion in the 4th century CE. Byzantine influence also introduced elements of Roman law, military organization, and administrative practices.
Lazika eventually declined by the end of the 7th century due to continuous invasions, internal instability,
By the 7th century, the Arab conquests reached the Caucasus region, leading to Lazika’s gradual loss of autonomy.
David the Builder
His reign (1089–1125) is characterized by significant reforms aimed at strengthening royal authority, consolidating territorial unity, and building a robust foundation for the kingdom’s future prosperity.
David instituted reforms to consolidate royal authority, rebuild Georgia’s fractured socio-political structure, and counter external threats, particularly from the Seljuk Turks.
Upon his coronation in 1089, Georgia was politically fragmented, economically weakened, and largely under Seljuk domination.
Internal Fragmentation:
• Many feudal lords held significant autonomy, undermining central authority.
• Nobles like the Bagvashi clan of Kldekari resisted royal control.
• The death of Sultan Malik-Shah in 1092 and subsequent Seljuk infighting presented opportunities for Georgia to regain autonomy and expand.
David needed to reform the army. He sought to build a standing army that would be directly loyal to him, reducing the kingdom’s reliance on feudal levies, which were unreliable and often divided.
David recognized the church as an important institution for solidifying his rule. By reforming the church and placing it under royal oversight, David strengthened the monarchy’s legitimacy and created a unified national identity centered on Georgian Christianity.
• The death of Sultan Malik-Shah led to fragmentation in the Seljuk Sultanate (1092–1104).
The Crusades were a series of religious and military campaigns initiated and sanctioned by the Latin Church during the medieval period. These campaigns were primarily aimed at reclaiming the Holy Land (especially Jerusalem) from Muslim rule, but they also had broader political, economic, and social objectives.
The First Crusade (1096-1099) and the success of the Christian forces in capturing Jerusalem had a profound symbolic impact on Christian kingdoms, including Georgia. David, who had been influenced by the idea of Christian unity in the face of external Muslim threats, used the Crusades as a rallying point for his military campaigns.
The standing army, known as the Monaspa, was paid directly by the king and was a professional force trained for battle.
• Battle of Didgori (1121): This was the most significant military victory of David’s reign. His forces decisively defeated the Seljuks at Didgori, reclaiming much of the territory lost to the Seljuks and ensuring Georgian independence.
Agricultural Recovery: Following the devastations of previous invasions, David encouraged the repopulation of depopulated regions and the restoration of agricultural production. This was key to stabilizing the economy and securing food resources for the kingdom.
Creation of Royal Courts: David established royal courts with authority over local disputes, undermining the power of local feudal lords to act as independent judicial authorities. This helped ensure that the king’s laws were applied consistently throughout the kingdom.
Liberation of Georgia
By the time David began his active military operations in 1110, the Seljuk-Turk Sultanate was experiencing internal turmoil. After the death of Malik Shah in 1099, his son Muhammad had to contend with uprisings and conflicts in Iraq, and later faced renewed clashes with the Crusaders
Liberation of Samshvilde (1110)
The operation was led by Giorgi Mbtebartukhutse-Chkondideli, who captured Samshvilde while David was in West Georgia. This victory was crucial for several reasons:
• It removed the Seljuks from a key fortress on trade routes and prevented them from using the area as a base for border raids against Georgia.
• The region’s economic potential, previously exploited by the Turks, was now redirected to benefit the Georgian kingdom.
Following the capture, the Seljuks responded by sending a small force, but the Georgians defeated them, marking the first major military engagement between David’s forces and the Seljuks since 1099.
Rustavi (1115): Capturing Rustavi was important because it blocked Muslim forces’ access to Tbilisi and weakened the nomadic Seljuks who relied on the area for grazing. The timing of the attack was crucial, as it occurred while the Seljuk Sultan’s forces were engaged in the Crusades, preventing any swift retaliation.
• Lore (1117): The capture of Lore, an important fortress in southern Georgia, was another key victory. Lore had been controlled by the Seljuks and strategically blocked the southern approach to Georgia. Its capture opened the way for Georgian expansion into Northern Armenia and allowed Georgia to exert influence over the region.—-In 1117, David the Builder took the fortress of Lore, which had previously been part of the Armenian kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraketi and was now under Seljuk control. strengthening Georgia’s position in the Caucasus. This was also a timely move, as it coincided with the death of the Seljuk Sultan Muhammad, leading to a period of instability within the Seljuk Sultanate.
Resettling the Kivchaks
The Kivchaks were a nomadic Turkic people who lived in the Ponto-Caspian steppes. By the early 12th century, they were weakened by wars with other nations. David saw an opportunity to use the Kivchaks to strengthen Georgia’s military power. He resettled them in Georgia’s border regions and made them part of the military system.
The Kivchaks were skilled horse warriors, ideal for border defense and quick strikes. David arranged a peaceful migration for the Kivchaks through Ossetia and settled 40,000 families in strategic areas, where they helped protect Georgia’s new territories from nomadic Turkish forces.
The Battle of Didgori and the Final Liberation of Georgia
By 1120, David had nearly expelled all Seljuk forces from Georgia. The only remaining Muslim stronghold was the Emirate of Tbilisi. David focused on gaining control of this final region, including Tbilisi and Dmanisi.
In 1121, David gathered a large army to confront a coalition of Seljuk and other Muslim forces that were threatening Georgia.
The coalition army was significantly larger than Georgia’s, but David used his military genius to win the Battle of Didgori.
Didgori. He strategically positioned his army on the uneven, mountainous terrain of the Didgori Valley, preventing the enemy from using their numerical advantage.
After this victory, Georgia’s power expanded, and David took Tbilisi in 1122, moving the capital from Kutaisi to Tbilisi. The liberation of Georgia was completed in 1123 with the capture of Dmanisi, and David’s kingdom became a powerful force in the Caucasus.
Tamar
King David’s descendants, including Tamar, inherited a kingdom that was strong in military and territorial terms, but it was politically unstable due to continuous battles for power and influence.
A key event that disrupted the Georgian royal family was the coup led by David V, the eldest son of Demetre I, in 1155. David deposed his father, who was still alive, believing that his younger brother, George, might claim the throne. The coup did not last long; David V died after just six months of ruling, and his younger brother Giorgi took the throne alongside their father. However, King Demetre’s death in 1156 left the throne to Giorgi III, who ruled until his own death in 1184, paving the way for his daughter, Tamar, to take the throne.
At the time of Tamar’s ascension, she was just 24 years old. Her reign was immediately challenged by the powerful Georgian nobility, who had significant influence over the political landscape
The nobles expected to have control over the kingdom in exchange for their military support, and they were wary of the young queen’s ability to govern. The powerful nobles did not easily accept a woman on the throne and expected to exert influence over the administration.
The Nobility’s Demand for Power
Some of the nobles, including the influential Imeretian princes, pushed for a greater share in decision-making, seeking positions of power for themselves or their relatives.
As a result, Queen Tamar faced pressure to share power and appoint members of the aristocracy to important government posts.
Tamar agreed to some of these demands, including the removal of some of her father’s close allies and key officials from office. This was one of the first signs of Tamar’s diplomatic approach, balancing between maintaining royal authority and managing the interests of the nobility.
The “Tent” Crisis and the Political Struggle
The “Tent” crisis refers to a moment in Tamar’s early reign when the aristocracy’s power reached a peak. A group of noblemen, led by Kutlu Arslan, wanted to create a new political body called the “Tent.” The Tent would act like a council with significant power over the kingdom’s major decisions, like declaring war, making appointments, and even handling legal matters.
To deal with this threat, she had Kutlu Arslan arrested, a bold move that showed her willingness to act decisively when necessary.
Tamar skillfully negotiated with the nobles, offering them assurances of loyalty and power in return for their support. This diplomacy resulted in the nobles swearing loyalty to her once again, and the crisis ended without bloodshed. This experience taught Tamar how to balance her authority with the interests of her kingdom’s powerful elite.
Tamar’s Marriage: A Political Strategy
However, the marriage did not go well. Yuri was an ineffective ruler, and his behavior was seen as disrespectful by Tamar. He was not able to assert himself in Georgia, and according to some sources, he acted arrogantly toward the Georgian nobles, which further alienated them from him. Within just two years, Tamar decided to divorce him in 1187, a bold move that again showcased her willingness to make unpopular decisions for the good of the kingdom.
The Battle of Shamcori (1195)
One of the most significant military victories during her reign was the Battle of Shamcori in 1195. This battle was fought against the Seljuk Turks, who were a major threat to Georgia’s southern borders.
The battle was a decisive victory for Georgia, and it solidified Tamar’s reputation as a strong and capable military leader. The victory at Shamcori helped to secure Georgian control over the Caucasus region and protected the kingdom from further Turkish invasions. It also allowed Tamar to expand Georgia’s influence, particularly in the Kura River basin and parts of Armenia.
basiani
Queen Tamar, recognizing the threat posed by the expanding Rumi Sultanate, gathered her military forces under the leadership of David Soslan, Zachariah Tskhoveli, and Shalva Akhaltsikhe to confront the Seljuk advance.
• The Georgians wanted to protect their northern border and maintain control over Armenia, which was crucial to the Kingdom of Georgia’s political and economic stability. Additionally, Georgia wanted to preserve a strategic buffer zone between itself and the Seljuk Turks, who were becoming an increasingly powerful force in the region.
The Battle of Basiani (1202):
• The battle took place in the Basian Valley on July 27, 1202. The Georgian army, commanded by David Soslan, engaged the forces of Rukn ad-Din in a hard-fought battle. The Rumi Sultan was wounded during the conflict and was forced to retreat to Erzurum, marking a major victory for Georgia.
• The battle was crucial for several reasons:
• It stopped the Rumi Sultan from advancing further into the Caucasus, thereby ensuring the Georgians maintained control of northern Armenia and Kars.
• It provided a buffer zone between the Kingdom of Georgia and the expanding Turkish territories to the south, safeguarding Georgia’s southern and southeastern borders.
• The victory at Basiani did not result in territorial gains for Georgia, but it significantly reinforced its position as a dominant power in the Caucasus.
Golden age
Georgia became a prosperous and influential state in the region, with a strong military, centralized government, and flourishing culture.
Tamar was also remembered for her patronage of the Orthodox Church. She was seen as a pious and just ruler, and her reign brought prosperity to the kingdom. After her death in 1213, Tamar was deeply mourned, and her legacy lived on in Georgian history as a symbol of strength and wisdom.
Under Tamar, Georgia reached its largest territorial extent in history, controlling much of the Caucasus, parts of northern Armenia, and even extending into parts of the Black Sea coast.
Tamar’s successful military campaigns, including the Battles of Shamkori and Basiani, ensured that Georgia emerged as the dominant power in the southeastern Caucasus.
Tamar implemented a revolutionary political system that balanced the power of the aristocracy with that of the royal court. She had to carefully manage the demands of the powerful feudal lords while asserting her authority.
Her reign saw the rise of the nobility who received land and privileges, but they were still ultimately under the control of the monarch. Tamar’s system was efficient, which allowed her to maintain centralized power while ensuring loyalty from the aristocracy.
Tamar’s reign was a period of significant cultural flourishing. The development of literature, architecture, and the arts reached new heights, with prominent figures like Shota Rustaveli, the author of the epic poem “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin,” contributing to the cultural legacy.
• Church construction flourished, with the building of many iconic monasteries and fortresses, including the Gelati Monastery and Kvetara Monastery.
• Economically, Georgia benefited from increased trade, particularly with the Byzantine Empire and other neighboring regions.
geo in 11
Bagrat IV took the throne in Georgia, tensions with the Byzantine Empire re-emerged. Both Georgia and Byzantium wanted control over the region of Tao
Byzantine Attack on Kldekari (1028):
• The Byzantine forces attacked the Georgian-held fortress of Kldekari, but they were defeated by Liparit Baghuashi, a powerful Georgian noble, and his forces. This victory was crucial for Georgia.
Attempts to Capture More Territory:
• Despite the defeat at Kldekari, the Byzantine forces didn’t give up. They tried to conquer more regions, including Shavsheti and Klarjeti. Some local Georgian nobles, hoping for rewards, switched sides and helped the Byzantines. However, other nobles, loyal to King Bagrat, resisted the Byzantine invasion.
Bishop Saba Mtbevari’s Role:
• A key figure in defending Georgia was Bishop Saba Mtbevari. When some areas fell to the Byzantines, Bishop Saba built a new fortress near the church of Tbeti and successfully captured Shavsheti, securing it for Georgia.
The Siege of Artanuji (1030s):
• The Byzantines tried to capture the fortress of Artanuji, but they failed. Emperor Constantine VIII had to retreat because he became ill, which slowed the Byzantine offensive.
• After Constantine’s death, his successor Romanos III was less focused on Georgia and more on other regions, like Syria and Sicily. This gave Georgia a break from direct conflict.
• Peace Talks:
• Queen Mary of Georgia, Bagrat IV’s mother, traveled to Constantinople in 1031 to negotiate peace. She was successful, securing the title of “Kurapalati” for her son (a prestigious title), a peace agreement, and the marriage of Bagrat to Emperor Romanos III’s niece, Helen
Shifting Focus:
• After the war, Georgia gave up its efforts to take back Tao and turned its attention to other goals, especially the annexation of the Emirate of Tbilisi and the Kingdom of Kakhet-Hereti.
Liparit Baghuashi, once a supporter of Bagrat IV, began plotting against the king. Liparit wanted to increase his own power, and he had support from other nobles who opposed Bagrat.
• Liparit’s first challenge was over Tbilisi, an important city in Georgia, which he wanted to capture. In 1032, Liparit and another noble, Ivane Abazadze, captured the Emir of Tbilisi, Jafar, but they couldn’t capture the whole city.
In 1037, Liparit returned to the fight, this time with the king’s support and an alliance with the King of Kakhet-Hereti. They besieged Tbilisi for two years. However, at the last moment, King Bagrat IV unexpectedly made a peace deal with Jafar, lifting the siege.
• This decision angered Liparit, who felt betrayed by the king. It worsened their relationship, leading to more conflict.
Liparit’s Capture:
• During a separate conflict with the Seljuk Turks, Liparit was captured. This gave Bagrat IV an opportunity to reassert control over the eastern part of Georgia, including Tbilisi.
Liparit lost support from the Byzantines, which weakened his power. Local Meskheti nobles, dissatisfied with his rule, captured him and his son Ivane. Liparit was then forced to become a monk, marking the end of his political power.
During the conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Georgia, Bishop Saba of Tbeti played a crucial role in defending Georgian lands. When retreat to Shavsheti became impossible, he built a castle near the church of Tbeti and successfully captured the region of Shavsheti.
Even though some Georgian nobles switched sides and supported the Byzantines, the empire was unable to gain a major advantage in the war. This was largely because Georgia’s most powerful feudal lords remained loyal to the king.
The Byzantines then tried to capture Artanuji, the main fortress in Klarjeti, which was a key strategic location.
Romanos III became the new emperor of Byzantium. Unlike his predecessor, Romanos focused on other regions, including Syria in the east and Sicily in the west.
n 1031, Queen Mary, the mother of King Bagrat IV, traveled to Constantinople to negotiate peace and strengthen relations with Byzantium.
King Bagrat IV faced significant internal challenges. Some Georgian nobles plotted to remove him from the throne and crown his half-brother, Demetre, as king.
nitially, the Emirate's primary duty was to collect taxes for the Caliphate, but as the Caliphate weakened in the 9th century, the Emirs of Tbilisi gained greater independence.
Bagrat IV was only 14 years old, Liparit Baghuashi, who had been the king’s protector and tutor, teamed up with Ivane Abazadze, the Eristavi (governor) of Kartli, to capture Tbilisi. They tricked Jafar, the Emir of Tbilisi, into coming to Mukhathvedi, where they captured him and kept him as a prisoner.
they were unable to capture Tbilisi itself. Later, King Bagrat decided to release Jafar and allowed him to return to Tbilisi. This decision angered Liparit, as it prevented him from achieving his goal of taking over the emirate.
iparit launched a much bigger campaign to capture Tbilisi. This time, he allied with King Bagrat IV and King Gagik of Kakhet-Hereti. Together, they laid siege to Tbilisi, cutting off supplies and weakening the city for two years.
Allies and Support:
Byzantium (the Eastern Roman Empire) sided with Liparit to weaken Georgia.
Kakhet-Hereti Kingdom allied with Liparit, likely due to tensions with Bagrat IV.
A peace agreement was reached after the death of Byzantine Emperor Michael VI in 1041, with Liparit being granted the title of Eristavi of Kartli (Duke of Kartli). Prince Demetre was sent back to Constantinople.
Battle of Sasireti (1047):
The peace didn’t last. In 1047, Liparit defeated Bagrat IV in the Battle of Sasireti, with support from Byzantium and Kakheti. Despite hiring Viking mercenaries, Bagrat couldn’t win.
Liparit was later captured while fighting alongside the Byzantines against the Seljuk Turks. Emperor Constantine IX eventually ransomed him, but this time, Liparit faced strong opposition from Georgian nobles.
Second Invasion (1068): Alp Arslan invaded Kakheti. The local king, Agsartan, accepted Islam and became a Seljuk ally. The Seljuks also advanced into Kartli and Western Georgia but faced challenges due to harsh winter conditions.
After Malik Shah’s campaigns, nomadic Seljuk Turks began invading Georgia every year. These seasonal raids devastated the kingdom:
Large areas of fertile land were abandoned and turned into pastures for the nomads.
Agriculture and settlements were destroyed, leading to widespread famine and hardship.
Classics
The play begins with Aphrodite, the goddess of love, revealing her anger toward Hippolytus. Hippolytus, the illegitimate son of Theseus, has completely rejected her in favor of Artemis, the goddess of chastity and the hunt.
She decides to make Phaedra, Theseus' wife and Hippolytus' stepmother, fall hopelessly in love with him.
He claims he has no interest in love or passion and sees no value in Aphrodite’s domain.
She appears weak, pale, and consumed by inner conflict. She is accompanied by her loyal Nurse and the Chorus of women, who try to comfort her and figure out the cause of her suffering.
The admission horrifies her, as she knows it is wrong to feel such desire for her stepson. Overwhelmed by guilt and shame, Phaedra decides that she would rather die than act on these forbidden feelings.
Against Phaedra’s wishes, the Nurse secretly goes to Hippolytus and tells him about Phaedra’s feelings.
He accuses women of being deceitful, immoral, and the cause of endless trouble for men.
Phaedra overhears Hippolytus’ reaction and is devastated by his harsh rejection and hateful words.
he decides to end her life. But before doing so, she resolves to protect her own reputation and ensure that Hippolytus is punished for his cruelty.
She writes a suicide note in which she falsely accuses Hippolytus of trying to seduce her. By doing this, she hopes to shift the blame onto him and preserve her honor after her death.
The Chorus of women responds to Phaedra’s actions with sorrow and bewilderment. They mourn her tragic fate and reflect on the devastating power of love, which, in this case, has become a destructive force rather than a source of joy.
The tragedy escalates when a messenger announces Phaedra’s suicide. Her body is discovered hanging in her chambers—a grim testament to her despair
Theseus is devastated by the loss of his wife and enraged by the accusations against his son. Believing Phaedra’s claim, he condemns Hippolytus, setting in motion the next wave of tragedy.
Who are the "additional" personages in Voltaire's Oedipus?
Voltaire introduces characters like Philoctetes, Icarus, and Antigone as significant figures. He also gives expanded roles to the priest and other court members.
Which personages are missing in Voltaire's
Oedipus?
In Voltaire's version, the shepherd, who is central to revealing Oedipus' origin in Sophocles, is missing or has a diminished role. The Chorus is also absent.
Who are the members of the Chorus in Sophocles' and Voltaire's works, and what function did they have?
In Sophocles, the Chorus represents Theban elders, providing commentary, moral reflections, and a connection to the audience. Voltaire does not use a traditional Chorus but incorporates philosophical dialogue among characters to serve a similar purpose.
Where did the "love triangle" appear?
The "love triangle" is implied in Sophocles, involving Oedipus, Jocasta, and Laius, due to Oedipus unknowingly marrying his mother after killing his father.
This element is not emphasized in Voltaire's adaptation.
Where are two characters suspected of killing Laius?
In Sophocles, Oedipus is suspected of killing Laius.
In Voltaire, suspicions fall on both Oedipus and Creon.
Who made the decision to get rid of the child in Sophocles' Oedipus the King and in Voltaire's
Oedipus?
In Sophocles, both Laius and Jocasta decide abandon Oedipus to avoid the prophecy. In