ANCIENT GREECE

Geographical Condition

Greece is located in the southeastern part of Europe. To its north are the former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, while Albania is located to its northwest. To the northeast of Greece is Türkiye. Because it is a peninsula, it is surrounded by water on three sides. To the east is the Aegean Sea, to the south is the Mediterranean Sea, and to the west is the Ionian Sea.

Unlike the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, India, China, and Egypt, Greek civilization developed around the sea and not in river valleys. Because of this, their civilization is referred to as a thalassocracy or sea civilization. The seas surrounding Greece served as routes for trade and communication among its people. In this way, the sea became a means of unifying Greek culture and developing a shared civilization. Maritime trade became an important foundation of Greek life, especially given the limited arable land in their territory. The extent of Greek trade can be seen in Greek artifacts found along the coastal areas of the Mediterranean basin.

Two-thirds (2/3) of the Greek mainland is made up of rugged mountains. Only about one-fifth (1/5) of the land is suitable for farming. It also has many narrow valleys, and its rivers are not navigable. These unique physical features greatly influenced the way of life in Greece. The rugged mountains served as major barriers that made travel difficult. This is why the communities that developed became independent of one another and learned to value their autonomy. Because of the limited fertile land, the population of each community remained small, unlike the large populations that developed in the Nile, Indus, or Huang He river valleys.

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Figure 3.1. The map of the ancient Greece

Most of Greece’s land is rocky. Because of this, only a limited number of crops could be grown, such as olives and grapes. This also explains why Greek trade flourished across the sea and why they established colonies in other areas. They needed to obtain products like wheat from other places. It was difficult to support a large population because the narrow valleys did not provide enough farmland. This became an obstacle to interaction among communities and further strengthened the small and independent character of Greek city-states.

The absence of navigable rivers was another factor that hindered communication between communities. In Greece, rivers mainly served as sources of fresh water, fish, and other aquatic resources. They did not serve as lifelines or unifying routes, unlike the rivers that supported the civilizations of India, China, Mesopotamia, and Egypt.

THE PHYSICAL SETTING OF ANCIENT GREECE

The physical characteristics of Greece played a major role in shaping the character of the Greeks and the civilization they developed. Their strong inclination toward overseas trade was strengthened by its long and rugged coastline. This provided safe harbors for ships, encouraging active trade across the Mediterranean Sea.

Finally, the climate in Greece is Mediterranean. Temperatures throughout the year are moderate; it does not become extremely cold or extremely hot. Rain occurs mainly during winter, which means it is mostly sunny throughout the year. Because of this, the Greeks developed a fondness for competitive and public activities such as sports, theater, and political assemblies. These were usually held in open gymnasiums and amphitheaters.

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION: MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN

Minoan Civilization (2000–1400 BCE)

Sir Arthur Evans, an English archaeologist, discovered the first evidence of the Minoan civilization between 1900 and 1905. He coined the term “Minoan” to refer to the ancient civilization he found on the island of Crete, based on the legend of King Minos, the island’s ruler. He discovered the ruins of the Palace of Knossos in Crete. Its most notable feature was indoor plumbing, which supplied water for bathing and flush toilets.

Frescoes on the walls of houses reveal the daily life of the Minoans, including sports and festivals. Based on the clothing of women depicted in these paintings, it can be inferred that the Minoan period was a time of prosperity and luxury. The wealth of Minoan civilization appears to have been rooted in extensive overseas trade. Their ships were designed for long-distance sea voyages. Remains of their fine pottery have been found in distant coastal areas of Asia Minor and mainland Greece. Olive oil was also one of their major export products.

It is important to note that despite the wealth and power of Crete, no evidence of walls or moats has been found. Scholars suggest that this may be because the Minoan civilization was a commercial empire that did not need defensive structures for protection. It is also possible that due to its strong naval power and influence, no rival could challenge it. Most importantly, the absence of walls and moats may indicate peaceful relations with trading partners.

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Figure 3.2. The map of the Minoan civilization

There is also evidence of an ancient religion centered on a mother goddess or a group of goddesses. Wall paintings show religious rituals, dances, and athletic displays such as bull-leaping. Based on the legend of the Minotaur, it can be inferred that they had a strong reverence for bulls.

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Figure 3.3. Toreador Fresco, Late Minoan painting from Knossos, Crete, depicting young people vaulting over a bull, c. 1450–1400 BCE; in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete.

Between 1400 and 1200 BCE, the Minoan civilization came to an end. Even today, there is no definite conclusion about why it suddenly disappeared. Some scholars believe it was caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, while others suggest it may have been due to invasion. Whatever the cause, the Minoan civilization represents a golden age in Greek history.

Mycenaean Civilization (1600–1200 BCE)

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Figure 3.4. The map of the Mycenaean civilization

The Mycenaean civilization flourished in the Peloponnesus in mainland Greece. Its rise marked the beginning of the Bronze Age in Greek history. Heinrich Schliemann was the first to use the term “Mycenaean” to describe his discoveries in Mycenae in the northeastern Peloponnesus in 1876 BCE. Unlike the Minoans, excavations in the area revealed massive defensive walls about 20 feet thick, clearly built for protection. These fortifications stood on rocky mountain ridges. Their presence suggests that the Mycenaeans frequently experienced warfare or threats of war.

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Figure 3.5. The Mycenae, one of the archaeological site in Greece

Bronze was their primary metal for warfare. The limited agricultural resources of their land pushed the Mycenaeans to engage in trade and occasional raids on neighboring areas. This also led them to conquer nearby islands in the eastern Mediterranean, including the conquest of Knossos around 1450 BCE. According to scholars, the successful conquest of Knossos may have been aided by a volcanic eruption north of Crete about 80 miles away, which caused a massive tidal wave that devastated the island. The Mycenaeans later rebuilt Knossos, but it was finally destroyed in 1380 BCE by earthquakes and fire. The fall of the Minoan center marked the shift of Aegean civilization to mainland Greece under the Mycenaeans.

Greek civilization was also shaped by repeated invasions during the so-called Dark Ages (1150–750 BCE), including the Dorian Greeks who used iron weapons and ended Mycenaean dominance. The Dorians changed aspects of Greek life and helped lay the foundations of Greek culture. During this time, skilled bards emerged who composed stories about heroes representing Greek ideals. Homer was the most famous among them. Through his works, he shaped the Greek understanding of character and ideals. The heroes in the Iliad and the Odyssey represented the Greek concept of arete, which includes excellence, courage, fame, and honor.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

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Figure 3.6. The Acropolis of the ancient city-state of Athens, Greece.

During the Classical Period (750–300 BCE), the character of Greek political states and institutions was shaped by beliefs in human reasoning and equality. One of the most important foundations of this period was the polis or city-state, which became the center of Greek life. At the heart of each polis was the acropolis, a hilltop fortress that served as a safe refuge when the city was under attack. It also housed the most important temple dedicated to the city’s patron god or goddess.

CITIZENSHIP AND POLITICAL LIFE IN ANCIENT GREECE

During this period, citizenship meant being a member of a polis and participating in its political and religious activities. Acceptance of its laws and the right to own land were also indicators of citizenship. At this time, only men were considered citizens. Citizenship served as the basis of their rights, such as participation in the governance of the polis.

They formed the assembly or ekklesia, where they discussed and decided on matters and policies through voting. Their marketplace, the agora, served as the center of discussions about events in the polis. The archons were administrators of the courts and leaders of the polis. They also led the armed forces, and later on, they were elected.

The infantry phalanx made a significant contribution to the development of Greek political institutions because it was composed of citizen-soldiers known as hoplites. The emergence of the hoplites marked their importance as a key foundation of the polis. They took responsibility for its defense, which led to the recognition of their political rights.

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Figure 3.7. The Macedonian phalanx

The political rights enjoyed by the Greeks were unmatched at that time. The right to participate in decision-making, the right to elect leaders responsible for implementing agreed policies, and the right to be elected as leaders were among the most important political rights of Greek citizens. These political rights became the foundation of institutions, philosophy, science, and political ideology—democracy, which became the most important legacy of the Greeks to world civilization and humanity. The first is the belief that humans are capable of reasoning. The second is the belief that humans are free.

During times of war, the Greeks fought for greatness and fame. In times of peace, they demonstrated skill and courage through athletic competitions. The first Olympic Games or Panhellenic Games were held in 776 BCE in Olympia in western Peloponnesus in honor of Zeus. Women were not allowed to participate in the Olympic Games, but they had their own games called the Heraean Games in honor of Hera. These games brought together various city-states to compete for honor over a period of five days. An Olympic truce was observed for one month to ensure the safe travel of athletes.

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Figure 3.8. An artist’s description of the ancient Olympic games

RELIGION

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Figure 3.9. The gods worshipped by the Greeks

Like the Egyptians and Indians in ancient times, the Greeks developed a complete pantheon of gods and goddesses representing various traits such as wisdom (Athena) and elements of life such as war (Ares). They had twelve major gods known as the Olympian gods who lived on Mount Olympus. The Chthonic gods were deities of the earth and the Underworld ruled by Hades and Persephone.

They also believed in oracles, who served as mediums providing answers to questions while in a trance-like state. These were usually Pythian priestesses. The most famous oracle was the Oracle of Delphi, where the temple of Apollo was located.

Although each city-state remained independent, they were united by a common language and alphabet. They were also unified by religion and the Panhellenic Games. Their art and architecture reflected their high standards of taste and aesthetics.

HELLENIC AGE

This was the period when the Greeks began establishing colonies and expanding overseas trade to support their growing population. This led to the spread of Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean basin. These colonies were called Magna Graecia or “Greater Greece.”

THE RISE OF ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY

The establishment of democracy in Athens was a response to the challenges they faced. As trade expanded, some became wealthy while others remained poor, fell into debt, and became slaves. As a result, they lost their rights as citizens.

Solon, an archon, prohibited debt slavery. He encouraged trade by introducing the Athenian system of weights and measures, which created wealth for merchants. Cleisthenes organized 175 demes, which became the basic administrative units, and membership in these determined citizenship. He also created the Council of 500 or Boule, composed of fifty representatives from ten political tribes. He provided salaries to representatives, judges, and soldiers so even the poor could serve.

He also introduced a system where citizens could write the name of anyone considered a threat to Athenian society on broken pottery called ostracon. The person with the most votes was exiled from Athens for ten years.

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Figure 3.10. Solon (left) and Cleisthenes (right)

SPARTA: A GARRISON STATE

Sparta, located in the southern Peloponnesus, developed into a “police state” where individual rights were subordinated to the interests of the state. It established a large and powerful hoplite army made up of full citizens who were prohibited from any occupation other than soldiering.

Military training began at the age of seven when boys were taken from their families and placed under the agoge, Sparta’s strict education and training system. Spartan women were also trained in gymnastics, dance, and singing to ensure they remained strong and healthy so they could bear strong children.

Under the laws of Lycurgus, Sparta became one of the greatest city-states in Greece and eventually defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War.

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Figure 3.11. An artist’s description of the Spartans in ancient Greece

GOLDEN AGE OF ATHENS (480–430 BCE)

The Greek victory over the Persians from 490 to 449 BCE elevated Athens to a position of power and influence, allowing it to become the leader of the Greek city-states. The Delian League was formed in 478 BCE, a union of 150 city-states aimed at defending their independence against future Persian invasions. This marked the beginning of the Athenian Empire.

Pericles, the most important leader of Athens, ushered in the Golden Age. He strengthened Athenian democracy by paying citizens who served in the Assembly and Council, selected by lot. He also built a commercial empire supported by naval power and launched public building programs in Athens, including the construction of the Parthenon.

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Figure 3.12. The bust of Pericles bearing the inscription "Pericles, son of Xanthippus, Athenian" in Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican Museums

Classical art was defined by order, balance, and proportion. Greek creativity flourished in literature, especially tragedy and comedy, which served as public education by offering moral lessons and questioning traditional beliefs. These plays warned against human flaws such as excessive pride.

GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Greek philosophy developed around three key beliefs: first, the universe is orderly; second, it is governed by constant and absolute laws; and third, humans can understand these laws through reason.

The three greatest Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates believed that true knowledge is achieved through dialogue and systematic questioning. Plato, in The Republic, argued that the best ruler is a philosopher-king. Aristotle emphasized reason as the primary tool for understanding knowledge derived from experience.

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Figure 3.13. The three greatest Greek philosophers, Socrates (left), Plato (center), and Aristotle (right)

HELLENISTIC PERIOD (336–30 BCE)

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Figure 3.14. The map of the Hellenistic Kingdoms after Alexander the Great

The empire established by Alexander the Great was considered one of the greatest empires of its time. Throughout his empire, Hellenic culture spread and interacted with various cultures under Greek influence. The blending of Hellenic culture with these different traditions is known as Hellenistic culture.

The Hellenistic period is characterized by the following features. First, the use of the Greek language, which became the lingua franca across Alexander’s empire. Second, the dominance of Near Eastern religions over the Olympian gods. Third, advances in astronomy. Using Babylonian knowledge, Greek astronomers developed more advanced theories about the universe and were able to calculate the relative positions of planets at different times.

In philosophy, Epicureanism and Stoicism greatly influenced the thinking of leaders and people during this period. According to Epicureanism, “soundly based human happiness was the highest good; therefore, its rational pursuit should be adopted.” Stoicism, on the other hand, was based on the belief that “happiness lies in accepting the laws of the universe,” emphasizing self-control, dignity, and reason.

QUICK CHECK-IN

Reflection:

What is the significance of the absence of walls or moats in Crete, the center of the Minoan Civilization?

Explain the two foundations of the political rights of citizens in Ancient Greece. Why are these foundations still important today?