World History
9/4/2024
At a certain point in time, culture becomes more important than biology for survival
It is not always survival of the fittest, but survival of the smartest
History began when writing began (~5,000 years ago)
9/5/2024
We know of prehistoric people through artifacts and human remains/fossils
Artifact: an object made by a human being
9/6/2024 Chapter 2.1 Notes
Evolution was influenced by:
Climate
Diet
Survival strategies
Over time, humans developed new skills and tools to meet the challenges of endurance and sought better prospects for themselves through cooperation and migration
Our ancestors were called Australopithecus
Lived in Eastern and Southern Africa between 2.5 and 4 million years ago
Genus: a taxonomic rank that includes several similar and related species within it
Afarenis were capable of walking upright and using tools
They had arms, fingers, plenty of hair, and a brain ⅓ the size of our brains
Humans evolved from Australopithecus
Social Classes: If the job you had was perceived as more important or better, you would be at the top of the social classes and vice versa.
Writing: The first writing account we have is about trading/accounting
Used to keep track of trade
9/23/2024 Chapter 3.1 Notes
Ancient civilizations were settled alongside rivers
The development of early civilizations occurred between 10,000 and 8,000 BCE “Cradles of Civilization”
Mexico
Peru
China
India/Pakistan
Iraq
Egypt
The introduction of farming allowed larger populations to settle in one place
The ability to produce and distribute surpluses of food enabled some people to specialize in such tasks as:
Manufacturing handicrafts
Tending to the spiritual world
Governing
Even after the Neolithic Revolution, many people continued to lead a nomadic or semi nomadic existence, hunting and gathering or herding domestic animals
Family size was six or seven children
Global human population was skyrocketing
People relied on the exchange of goods and services to obtain necessary supplies
The system of exchange created hierarchies in societies
The nature of government changed as populations grew
Wheat was first domesticated in northern Iraq, western Iran, Syria, and Israel
Fertile Crescent:
Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq)
Southern Anatolia (modern day Turkey)
Levant (modern day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine)
Neolithic cities depended upon the transition to agricultural production to sustain their populations
9/23/2024
There was no writing in prehistoric times
Historians understand their beliefs and attitudes by studying the artifacts they produced
Jericho had a governing system
Famous tower of Jericho
Built around 8000 BCE
Most likely took 30+ years to build
Stairs on the inside led to the top
Some people believe it was for defense, others say it could’ve help religious value
Skull from Jericho
Symbolizes and shows people's respect for their ancestors
Could also show how those worshiped the dead and their ancestors
May have had some religious purpose
Historians and archeologists have speculated that the people venerated skulls, which may have been seen as relics of ancestors and objects of worship
City-state: a city that with its surrounding territory forms an independent state
Each civilization should have a written language i order to record important events
9/24/2024 Chapter 3.2 Notes
The first great cities arose in Southern Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium BCE
The ancient Sumerans were inventive people responsible for a host of technological advances
Sophisticated writing system
Farming arose in Mesopotamia by around 8000 BCE or earlier
For two millenia, the population was small
Villages with between one hundred and two hundred people
9/26/2024
Mesopotamia: a valley between the Euphrates River and the Tigris Rivers
Egypt: follows the Nile River
Indus River Valley: northwest corner of India that follows the Indus River
China: has multiple names but follows the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers
The Individual City-States inside of Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, etc.) made Mesopotamia “messy”
Significantly populated for their time
Religion in Mesopotamia
Theocracy
Sumerian Gods = not so nice
Polytheistic: believes in multiple Gods
Monotheistic: believes in only one God
Q: Why weren the people in Mesopotamia polytheistic instead of monotheistic?
A: People were polytheistic instead of monotheistic because they would be able to pray for different things (rain, farming, love, etc.)
Ziggurat: temples NOT PYRAMIDS
Places of worship for their deities
Hammurabi’s Code
Hammurabi reigned in Mesopotamia from 1792-1750 BCE
9/30/2024
In Babylon, which was the bigger deal, the hierarchy based on gender or the hierarchy based on class?
Top three reasons on why there were separate city-states:
1. Beliefs/culture
2. Geography
3. Population
Mesopotamia had religious rulers (divinely inspired), Egypt had pharaohs/kings
The people in Mesopotamia were religiously inspired
The leaders in Egypt, rather, were the divine/were thought of as Gods
Mesopotamia: the valley between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers
In Mesopotamia, many people wanted to take others possessions
Egypt wasn’t always at risk of invasion, unlike other civilizations
Hammurabi’s code is often compared to another ancient code of law - The Ten Commandments
10/2/2024
Howard Carter: archeologist who found King Tut’s tomb
Little is known about King Tut
Egyptians believed that death was a journey across the Nile
People hoped to be buried on the Nile’s western side
The Nile was the “soul of Egypt”
Horus: the god of the skies who brings powers to the pharaohs
Stone was the embodiment for the pharaohs
Stone was the way the pharaohs were remembered
Ramses the Great ruled until he was 90
Ramses the Great is known as Egypts greatest king
The Rosetta Stone was the key into decoding the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics because there was also Greek written on it
This provided a world into ancient Egypt’s pharaohs.
The Great Pyramids were built as tombs
10/3/2024
Mesopotamia Agriculture
Mesopotamia was the first launching point for many different crops and other foods to benefit culture as a whole
First example of the agricultural revolution
Permanent settlements emerged with the crop surplus
Mesopotamia Geography
Between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
Provided drinking water and transportation
Rivers often flooded
Mesopotamia Culture
Believed in multiple Gods
Civilizations run by a theocracy
Food surplus allowed people to develop the society
Specialized jobs were considered more important than others, so they were higher up on the social class
Hierarchy soon took control
Cave paintings depicted human’s ideas of religious beliefs and what was important to their culture
10/6/2024 Chapter 3.3 Notes
The Nile River civilization began under one ruler around 3150 BCE
Egypt remained a united and powerful civilization until the end of the Bronze Age (around 1100 BCE)
Egypt is part of the Sahara Desert today, but in 10000 BCE, Egypt was lush, wet, and dotted with lakes
Beginning in 6000 BCE, the grasslands and lakes soon turned into sand
People began to migrate to oases and rivers on the fringes, one of them being the Nile River Valley
Two different kingdoms
Lower Egypt (Delta region)
Upper Egypt (The Area Upriver)
King Narmer unified Upper and Lower Egypt around 3150 BCE
Early Dynasty Period: around 3150 to 2613 BCE
Unlike Mesopotamia:
Egypt was one single state rather than numerous rivaling city-states
Egypt was protected by its geography
Nile River Valley was surrounded by hot deserts
Pharaohs were the rulers of Egypt
When Egypt first unified, historians predict the population there was two million
Pharaoh translated means “big house”
The ruling elite:
Scribes
Priests
Pharaohs officials
The pharaoh served as the high priest and was seen as a God
Was seen as the human form/incarnation of Horus
Ancient Egyptians were polytheists
Egyptian writing are known as hieroglyphics
Means “Sacred Writings” in Greek
Hieroglyphics can be traced back to before the Early Dynastic Period
A combination of alphabetic signs, syllabic signs, word signs, and pictures of objects
There was a simplified version called hieratics
Papyrus: a writing material like paper that could be rolled up into scrolls and stored as records
The pyramids were tombs for the pharaohs
Ka: their spiritual double
Stayed in the tomb after the body died, had to be nourished with the offerings inside of the tomb
Ba: type of spiritual essence that separated the body after death
Would roam the world during the day and would return to the body each night
Ahk: another type of spirit
The spirit that traveled to the underworld and afterlife
The Great Pyramid at Giza was 756 ft. tall on each side and 481 ft. high
Contains 2.3 million stone blocks
The First Intermediate Period ended around 2040 BCE
Centralized rule in Egypt began with Mentuhotep II, marking the beginning of the Middle Kingdom Period
Lasted for 260 years
In 1991 BCE, Amenemhat began a long line of Pharaohs
Middle Kingdom Egypt reached its peak in the 1870s and 1860s BCE
The reign of Senusret III
10/7/2024 Chapter 3.4 Notes
The Indus River flows from the Himalayan Mountains into the Indian Ocean
In modern day Pakistan and India
In the third millennium BCE, the Indus River Valley civilization developed
The population of the Indus River Valley civilization declined in the second millennium BCE
Evidence of domestication of plants and animals in this area dates back to 7000 BCE
By about 5000 BCE, the Indus River Valley civilization was in contact with Egypt and Sumer
Used public baths
Largest cities
Harappa
Mohenjo-Daro
Indus River Valley civilization reached its peak in 2000 BCE
More than two thousand urban centers of different sizes were developed in this region
A lot of trade was between Mesopotamia and the Indus River Valley
Bronze technology entered Mesopotamia by the third millennium BCE through trade with Mesopotamia
Created unique sculptures using:
Clay
Stone
Bronze
Trade with Mesopotamia ended around 1800 BCE
The population declined over the next four centuries
By around 1500 BCE, the social and political systems had broken down, and then the civilization had come to an end
10/7/2024
Pharaohs were divine, the rulers of Mesopotamia were divinely inspired
Epic of Gilgamesh: an epic from ancient Mesopotamia
About Gilgamesh, King of Uruk
The first story ever written down
Epic: long story with a hero
A city-state is independent, while an empire is original land and land that was conquered
10/10/2024
Hammurabi had 282 laws
Pharaohs were the head of government and religious life in ancient Egypt
Egyptians created a 365 day calendar
Papyrus was the early paper from Egypt
In ancient Egypt, Pharaohs were seen as living gods
Lack of technology is NOT a characteristic of civilizations
The most important feature to the development of Egypt was the annual flooding of the Nile
The Nile is in Egypt
Mesopotamia is between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
Both Sumarians and Egyptians created a writing system
Gods
Re: god of sun
Isis: earth goddess of fertility
Osiris: first person mummified
First Intermediate Period: it wasn’t clear as to who ruled and it created chaos
Second Intermediate Period: Egyptians were invaded by Hyksos’ Superior Military Technology (SMT)
They were successful because they had a more civilized group
Controlled Egypt for 250 years, and Egypt eventually gained back control
Nomarchs were the people who the Egyptian pharaohs counted on to do his bidding
10/17/2024 Chapter 4.3 Notes
The Persians lived in the southern reaches of the Zagros mountains and along the Persian Gulf
Persia freed itself from Media under the leadership of Cyrus II, otherwise known as Cyrus the Great
In 550 BCE Persia overtook the Medians and all of it became the Persian empire
Soon his empire included the lands of Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Judah
Cyrus died in 530 BCE leaving Persia to his son Cambyses II
Under Cambyses an invasion of Egypt began in 525 BCE
After its takeover Cambyses became the pharaoh
In 522 BCE Darius I was able to conquer the Persian empire and take over as its leader
After his takeover Darius reorganized the empire into districts called satrapies
The religion of the Persians is called Zoroastrianism
It was one of the earliest monotheistic religions and was founded by Zoroaster
10/18/2024
Cyrus The Great
Most likely a member of the Persian royal family
He recognized the Persian state
Claimed Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenucia, and Judah
Timeline:
550 BCE: Cyrus sent Persian military to challenge Medes
539 BCE: Defeating Neo-Babylonians + entering Babylon
530 BCE: Cyrus dies in battle + Cambyses II becomes king
525 BCE: Cambyses II invades Egypt
Darius becomes emperor and begins to reorganize Persia
Bureaucracy is a form of government that allows the decisions to be transmitted throughout the land
Departments in charge of certain things in a society
Each satrapy (state) was administered by a royal governor called a satrap (governor)
10/28/2024
In Confucion China, women were required to follow the 3 obediences:
Husband
Father
Son
10/29/2024
The Warring States Period was a time of immense destruction and ceremonial creativity
11/05/2024
Four Varnas (also known as caste system)
Brahmins (Head): Priests + teachers
Kshatriyas (Arms): Warriors & rulers
Vaishyas (Legs): Farmers + traders + merchants
Shudras (Feet): Laborers
Dalits: Street sweepers and latrine cleaners
Soul started here
You are being brought up (Second born)
11/06/2024
FOR THE TEST
Mesopotamia is in modern day Iraq
China is in modern day China
The Great Wall of China was built on the northern border of China
The Hebrews lived in Palestine/Israel
Four groups of people:
The Hebrews
The people of the Steppes
The Chinese
The Indians
Hinduism: The goal of the moksha is to break the cycle of reincarnation
You need to go through the cycle of life three times in order to reach moksha
Buddhism: If you have good karma, you can reach Nirvana whenever
The Four Noble Truths
The truth of suffering
The truth of the cause of suffering
The truth of the end of suffering
The truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering
The first two truths describe our current situation
The last two truths describe our potential for growth
Chapter 5.1 Notes
Ancient China was not the first region in Asia to practice agriculture but was pivotal in developing early political dynasties.
The Qin Dynasty marked the beginning of China's first empire, known for monumental achievements like the Terracotta Army and the Great Wall.
Constant regional warfare among small states created a need for stable institutions and governance, influencing political thought and philosophy.
Ancient China produced significant innovations in metallurgy, including bronze and iron tools, weapons, and jewelry.
The development of written scripts and influential schools of thought, such as Confucianism and Daoism, shaped Chinese culture and governance.
Architectural advancements included the construction of defensive walls and monumental structures, reflecting the society's values and priorities.
Paleolithic and Neolithic Eras
Evidence of human presence in China dates back over a million years, with Homo erectus, exemplified by Peking Man, being one of the earliest known inhabitants.
The transition to Homo sapiens occurred around 100,000 years ago, leading to the development of complex societies and cultures.
Early humans were hunter-gatherers, later adopting fishing and foraging, which laid the groundwork for agricultural practices.
Distinct cultural complexes emerged in prehistoric China, influenced by geography and climate, leading to diverse languages and spiritual beliefs.
The Neolithic period saw the rise of farming communities capable of domesticating animals and producing textiles and ceramics.
Major Neolithic cultures included Nanzhuangtou, Dawenkou, and Yangshao, each with unique agricultural practices and social structures.
Northern cultures primarily relied on millet, while southern cultures cultivated rice, showcasing agricultural diversity.
Tools and techniques varied: northern communities used stone tools, while southern communities favored wooden implements.
The domestication of animals also differed, with northern cultures raising sheep and southern cultures utilizing water buffalo.
The Dawenkou culture (4100-2600 BCE) was known for exquisite pottery and elaborate burial practices, indicating social stratification.
The Yangshao culture (5000 BCE) focused on millet farming and simple burial practices, with an emphasis on decorated pottery.
The Hongshan and Liangzhu cultures produced beautiful jade artifacts, highlighting the significance of jade in spiritual and ceremonial contexts.
The need for defense against conflicts led to the formation of elite military classes and political hierarchies.
Archaeological evidence suggests the rise of cities with defensive walls, indicating a shift towards organized governance.
Spiritual rituals, including human sacrifice, were intertwined with military leadership, reflecting the complex social dynamics of the time.
Increased interaction among Neolithic cultures facilitated the exchange of ideas, tools, and artistic styles, fostering innovation.
However, this exchange also led to conflicts, as evidenced by the emergence of fortified settlements and military elites.
The archaeological record indicates a growing social differentiation, possibly influenced by warfare and resource competition.
Military elites in Neolithic China engaged in spiritual rituals that often involved human sacrifice, particularly of war captives, entombed beneath significant structures.
These practices reflect a complex relationship between warfare, spirituality, and social hierarchy, indicating a society that revered both military prowess and religious observance.
Archaeological findings in northern China reveal burial sites that suggest elaborate ceremonies aimed at honoring the deceased and appeasing the gods, highlighting the importance of ancestor worship.
The presence of grave goods in burial sites indicates social differentiation, with elites receiving more elaborate items, while women were often buried with similar quantities of goods as men, suggesting a degree of gender equality in burial practices.
Artifacts such as figurines and tools point to matrilineal kinship structures, where lineage was traced through the mother, indicating a significant role for women in these societies.
Carvings of goddesses and symbols of fertility suggest that women held a respected position in Neolithic culture, contrasting with later historical periods.
Ancestor worship was a cornerstone of Shang society, with kings acting as intermediaries between the living and the spirit world, performing rituals to honor ancestors and deities.
The supreme deity known as Di was central to Shang spirituality, with rituals aimed at appeasing this god to ensure prosperity and ward off disasters.
The construction of palaces, temples, and altars in capital cities reflects the importance of religious practices in Shang culture and governance.
The scale of royal tombs, such as Fu Hao's, indicates the significance of burial practices and the belief in an afterlife, with elaborate goods and human sacrifices included.
The increasing number of human sacrifices in later tombs suggests a growing emphasis on spiritual significance and the desire to appease the gods through blood offerings.
Rituals and religious practices were not only a means of spiritual expression but also a way to reinforce social hierarchies and the power of the ruling elite.
Confucianism
Confucianism, founded by Confucius (Kong Fuzi), emphasized morality, governance, and social relationships.
Central tenets include the importance of virtuous leadership, familial relationships, and the observance of rituals.
Confucius outlined five key relationships: king-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friends, each with defined roles and responsibilities.
The Analects, a collection of Confucius's teachings, became foundational texts for Confucian thought.
Later scholars like Mengzi expanded on Confucian ideas, promoting self-cultivation and moral integrity as essential for societal harmony.
Confucianism's influence extended beyond China, impacting Korea, Vietnam, and Japan in subsequent centuries.
Daoism
Daoism, attributed to figures like Laozi and Zhuangzi, emphasizes harmony with nature and the concept of 'dao' (the way).
Key texts include the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi, which explore themes of mysticism, nature, and the insignificance of the individual.
Daoism introduced the idea of 'wuwei' (nonaction), advocating for minimal interference in governance.
The philosophy encourages appreciation of the natural world and contemplation of existence.
Daoism's influence grew during the Han dynasty, but its roots were established in the Zhou era.
The dualism of yin-yang became a significant aspect of Daoist thought, influencing various fields such as medicine and astronomy.
Legalism
Legalism emerged as a counterpoint to Confucianism and Daoism, focusing on power and control through strict laws.
Legalists believed that a strong government required a written legal code and a system of rewards and punishments.
Key figures like Han Feizi criticized Confucian ideals as impractical, advocating for a pragmatic approach to governance.
Legalism emphasized the importance of a 'rich country and a strong army' as the foundation of a successful state.
The philosophy's focus on order and discipline shaped the political landscape of the Warring States period.
Despite its harshness, Legalism influenced the Qin dynasty's unification of China, demonstrating its practical applications.
The Qin state adopted Legalist reforms under Lord Shang, emphasizing strict laws and centralized control, which justified their expansionist agenda.
Legalism promoted merit-based governance, allowing for social mobility based on talent rather than birth, which was a departure from the feudal system of the Zhou.
The Qin implemented new legal codes, standardized weights and measures, and established a bureaucratic system that enhanced administrative efficiency.
Geographic and Cultural Context
Chapter 5.2 Notes
The Eurasian Steppe is a vast grassland stretching from Eastern Europe through Central Asia to Mongolia, characterized by its diverse geography and climate.
It is divided into two main zones: the western zone near Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan, and the eastern zone near China and Mongolia, each supporting nomadic pastoralist cultures.
The region has historically been home to nomadic tribes who grazed livestock and interacted with settled agricultural societies, leading to cultural exchanges and conflicts.
The steppe's vastness allowed for large herds of livestock, including goats, cattle, and sheep, which were essential for the nomadic lifestyle.
The prevalence of horses played a crucial role in the mobility and military prowess of these nomadic groups, enabling them to resist assimilation into larger states.
Nomadic pastoralists of the steppe contributed to the genetic and cultural makeup of various ethnic groups, including Turkic, Iranian, Mongolic, and Uralic peoples.
The adaptation to a nomadic lifestyle was influenced by climate changes, particularly around 1500 BCE, which shifted many communities from agriculture to livestock herding.
The nomadic lifestyle fostered a culture of mobility, allowing tribes to migrate in search of pastures and resources, often leading to raids on settled agricultural societies during times of scarcity.
The social structure of nomadic tribes was often egalitarian, with less pronounced gender roles compared to settled societies, allowing women to participate in horseback riding and combat.
The Inner Asian Steppe is characterized by grasslands, mountains, and deserts, which are not conducive to agriculture, leading to a reliance on livestock.
Climate fluctuations, such as periods of cooling and drought, forced nomadic groups to adapt their lifestyles and seek new grazing lands.
The need for mobility in herding livestock shaped cultural practices, including the mastery of horseback riding and the development of unique social structures.
Archaeological evidence suggests that climate change around 1500 BCE led to significant shifts in population and lifestyle among the steppe peoples.
Nomadic tribes engaged in trade with settled agricultural societies, exchanging animal products for manufactured goods, which were highly valued.
The Silk Roads, controlled by steppe tribes, facilitated the exchange of luxury goods such as silk, which held both material and social significance.
Goods like silk were not only practical for clothing but also served as symbols of power among nomadic leaders, enhancing their status.
The distribution of plundered goods from raids helped solidify the authority of chieftains, who were often recognized as khans or chanyus.
Nomadic societies were often organized into clans or tribes, led by chieftains selected for their martial skills and leadership qualities.
Loyalty to a chieftain was crucial for maintaining social cohesion and ensuring the survival of the group in a harsh environment.
The title of khan signified a leader with both military and spiritual authority, reflecting the importance of leadership in nomadic culture.
Tribal confederations emerged as powerful entities capable of exerting influence over trade routes and neighboring civilizations.
Compared to settled societies, gender roles in nomadic cultures were more fluid, with women participating in horseback riding and combat.
Recent archaeological findings indicate that women in steppe societies were not only involved in domestic tasks but also in warfare and hunting.
The egalitarian nature of nomadic societies allowed for a more balanced distribution of power and responsibilities between genders.
Folktales about female warriors, such as Mulan, may have roots in the historical realities of women in steppe cultures.
The earliest written accounts of the nomadic peoples of the steppe come from Chinese sources, which categorized them as the Hu or Donghu.
These records identified five major groups: the Xiongnu, Di, Qiang, Xianbei, and Jie, each with distinct cultural and social characteristics.
The interactions between these nomadic groups and Chinese civilizations were often marked by conflict, trade, and cultural exchange.
Understanding these early records is crucial for comprehending the historical dynamics between nomadic and agrarian societies.
The Silk Roads served as vital arteries for trade, connecting the nomadic tribes with settled Chinese societies.
The exchange of goods, such as horses for silk and grain, fostered interdependence despite cultural differences.
The tribute system often blurred the lines between trade and coercion, with the Xiongnu receiving goods in exchange for peace.
The Xianbei's military strength led to significant population shifts in northern China, as they sought to consolidate power.
The Northern Wei dynasty, founded by the Tuoba clan, attempted to adopt Chinese cultural practices, leading to internal strife.
Marriages between Xianbei elites and Chinese families exemplified the blending of cultures, though it also caused tensions.
The Khitan, organized as clans, began to consolidate power in the steppes, eventually founding the Liao dynasty (907–1125).
Their rise marked a new phase in the history of the steppes, as they expanded their influence beyond traditional boundaries.
The Khitan's success set the stage for later empires, including the Mongols and Jurchen, to dominate the region.
The decline of the Xiongnu and Xianbei did not diminish the significance of steppe societies in East Asian history.
The Mongol Empire's conquests in the 13th century exemplified the enduring legacy of nomadic power in shaping Chinese history.
The cultural and economic exchanges initiated by these steppe societies laid the groundwork for future interactions between nomadic and settled peoples.
Chapter 5.4 Notes
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are two major urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilization, known for their advanced urban planning.
Unlike other ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley shows little evidence of centralized political power or hereditary monarchs.
The civilization thrived on agriculture, utilizing the fertile plains of the Indus River and benefiting from monsoon rains.
The Indus Valley Civilization is marked by a common culture, advanced drainage systems, and orderly streets.
Artisans produced jewelry and textiles, indicating a high degree of labor specialization.
Spiritual practices included ceremonial bathing and the worship of animals like elephants and bulls, suggesting a rich spiritual life.
Environmental factors, such as soil salinization from irrigation and deforestation, contributed to the civilization's decline around 1700 BCE.
The abandonment of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro led to a significant population decrease, with cities housing up to 40,000 residents before their decline.
The development of a written script, consisting of over 400 symbols, facilitated trade and communication, although it remains largely undeciphered.
The Aryans entered the Indian subcontinent around 1800 BCE, bringing with them the Vedic religion.
The Vedas, composed of hymns and rituals, were initially transmitted orally and later written in Sanskrit.
Aryan society was hierarchical, with ritualistic sacrifices to gods like Varuna and Indra, reflecting their beliefs in nature and warfare.
The Vedic religion evolved into Brahmanism, influenced by new gods and philosophical treatises known as the Upanishads.
Concepts such as samsara (the cycle of rebirth) and karma (the law of cause and effect) emerged, reshaping spiritual beliefs.
The Brahmans, a priestly class, played a crucial role in developing and transmitting these new religious ideas.
Key Concepts:
Samsara: The belief in the cycle of rebirth, where the soul leaves the body after death to be reborn in a new form.
Karma: The moral law of cause and effect, where every action influences future rebirths, determining one's status in the next life.
The ultimate goal of life was to achieve union with Brahman, the universal reality, transcending the cycle of rebirth.
Over centuries, Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, incorporating devotional practices and personal worship.
The Bhagavad Gita, completed around 300 CE, emphasized moral living for all, not just Brahmans, promoting a more inclusive spiritual path.
The blending of Brahmanism and Buddhism led to a more diverse and adaptable religious landscape in India.
Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, was born around 563 BCE and renounced royal life to seek enlightenment.
His teachings emerged as a critique of Brahmanism, focusing on human suffering and the path to liberation.
Both Hinduism and Buddhism are characterized by their diversity, with numerous schools of thought and sects adapting to local cultures.
The Gita's teachings contributed to the evolution of Hindu philosophy, emphasizing personal duty (dharma) and devotion (bhakti).
Buddhism, while initially a movement for the lowly, became institutionalized and attracted elite patronage, influencing art and architecture across Asia.
Following the laws of dharma will give good karma
The goal for Buddhism and Hinduism is to break out of the cycle of samsara (reincarnation)
11/13/2024 Chapter 6.1 Notes
Bronze Age Trade (c. 3300–1200 BCE)
Greece and Aegean islands like Crete traded wine and olive oil, especially with Egypt and the Near East.
Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations prospered, connecting the eastern Mediterranean with western Asia.
Iron Age and Technological Advancements
Collapse of the Late Bronze Age led to iron tools and weapons.
Phoenicians preserved Bronze Age culture, introduced the alphabet, and expanded Mediterranean trade.
Egypt as a Dominant Power
Late Bronze Age was marked by Egypt's dominance, stability, and economic growth.
Other kingdoms (Hittites, Minoans, Mycenaeans, Assyrians, etc.) had unique cultures but shared diplomatic and military practices.
Minoan Crete (2000–1600 BCE)
Minoans built palaces, developed Linear A script, and practiced bullfighting rituals.
Society possibly honored a snake-wielding goddess, with high social status for some women.
Mycenaean Greece and Troy
Mycenaeans developed Linear B script (early Greek) and built fortified palace complexes.
Likely basis for Homer’s Iliad, with Mycenaean kingdoms resembling those in the epic.
Bronze Age Collapse (after 1200 BCE)
Invasions and natural disasters led to the destruction of Mycenaean and other cultures, resulting in Greece’s "Dark Age."
Sea Peoples invaded Egypt and destroyed Hittite and Levantine cities.
Iron Age Innovations (c. 900 BCE)
Scarcity of tin led to advances in iron-making techniques, marking the beginning of the Iron Age in the eastern Mediterranean.
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Expansion
Phoenicians, skilled sailors, established colonies and introduced the alphabet, later adapted by Greeks.
Greek colonies spread throughout the Mediterranean, fostering interaction with Phoenicians and Etruscans.
Etruscans and Roman Influence
Etruscans influenced Roman culture, art, religious practices, and the alphabet.
Etruscan traditions like gladiatorial contests and ancestral rites were adopted by the Romans.
11/14/2024
Relied more on trade rather than crops
The Peloponnesus:
Surrounded by water on three sides
Looks like an island, but is not
You could not farm with salt water
Greece was NOT a river civilization
Most famous oracle is the Oracle of Delphi
Oracle: someone who can tell the future; people would ask it for a prediction of the future
11/14/2024 Chapter 6.1 Notes
Post-Bronze Age Greece: Following the fall of Mycenaean kingdoms (~1100 BCE), a new Iron Age Greek culture developed, featuring varied city-states with distinct government types (monarchies, oligarchies, democracies).
City-States & Governance: Greek city-states (polis) were self-governed, typically by free male citizens. Governance ranged from monarchies to democracies, where both rich and poor males could participate.
Greek Classical Period (500–323 BCE): Marked by cultural achievements in literature, art, and philosophy. Philosophers questioned traditional beliefs and explored human nature.
Archaic Period Revival (800–500 BCE): Known as Archaic Greece, this period saw population growth, the formation of independent city-states, and shared Greek culture despite political divisions.
Olympic Games: Started in 776 BCE at Olympia to honor Zeus, focused on athletic skills useful for war. Admission was free for men; women were excluded.
Trade & Alphabet: Greeks engaged in trade with Phoenicians, adopting and adapting the Phoenician alphabet by adding vowels, which led to a return of literacy.
Colonization: Limited farmland led to Greek colonies across the Mediterranean, spreading the idea of citizenship and political equality among settlers.
Rise of Tyrants: Social tensions between wealthy landowners (aristoi) and common people (kakoi) sometimes led to rule by populist leaders or tyrants.
Introduction of Coinage: Athens adopted coinage in the 6th century BCE, boosting economic growth and market trade.
Sparta: Known for its military state and social structure. Citizens (Spartiates) owned land worked by helots (enslaved people from conquered lands). Their government included two kings and a rigid societal structure focused on military training.
Spartan Women: Enjoyed unique freedoms, managing estates and participating in physical training to support a strong warrior society.
Athens: Developed a unique democratic system, evolving from oligarchic rule to a more inclusive system under leaders like Solon, who reformed laws to address economic and social inequalities.
Debt Relief and Slavery Ban: Solon canceled all debts and outlawed slavery for unpaid loans, benefiting struggling farmers.
Council of Four Hundred: Solon established a Council of Four Hundred with members from each of Athens's four tribes, chosen by lot, giving commoners a role in government.
Jury Courts and Appeals: Solon introduced jury courts, allowing Athenians to appeal magistrates’ rulings and have cases decided by their peers.
Wealth-Based Government Roles: Government eligibility was based on wealth, with the wealthiest serving as magistrates, while poorer citizens participated in the Assembly and jury courts.
Pisistratus’s Rule: Pisistratus seized power by force but maintained Solon’s reforms, redistributing land to help farmers and promoting religious festivals to unite Athenians.
Overthrow of Pisistratus's Sons: After Pisistratus’s death, his sons failed to maintain power. Cleisthenes, with Spartan help, overthrew them, eventually leading to the rise of democracy.
Cleisthenes’s Reforms: Cleisthenes replaced the Council of Four Hundred with a Council of Five Hundred and reorganized Athenians into ten tribes, mixing villages across Attica to foster unity.
Direct Democracy Established: By the end of the Archaic period, Athens had a direct democracy with the Assembly meeting regularly, approving laws, declaring war, and approving treaties.
Citizen Participation: Athens had around 30,000-40,000 adult male citizens, with six thousand needed for Assembly meetings, and citizens were chosen by lot to serve in the Council, promoting broad participation in governance.
Jury Service and Participation: All male citizens served on juries, interpreting laws, but women, enslaved people, and foreigners were excluded.
Role of Women in Religion: Citizen-class women held significant roles in religious ceremonies as priestesses.
Classical Period Achievements: The Greek Classical period (500–323 BCE) was marked by cultural achievements, including art, literature, and philosophy.
Persian Wars Overview:
Began as Greek city-states, led by Athens, resisted Persian control, starting with the Ionian Rebellion.
Battle of Marathon (490 BCE): Athenians successfully defended against Darius’s invasion.
Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE): Spartan-led forces delayed Xerxes’ Persian army, inspiring continued Greek resistance.
Battle of Salamis (480 BCE): Greek naval forces, led by Athens, defeated the Persian fleet, causing Xerxes to retreat.
Battle of Plataea (479 BCE): Greek forces defeated remaining Persian troops, ending the invasion.
Athenian Empire and Delian League:
Post-Persian Wars, Athens led the Delian League to defend against Persia and liberate Greek cities.
The Delian League became an Athenian empire, with other Greek city-states paying tribute, enriching Athens.
Athens used funds to pay jurors and Assembly attendees, increasing lower-class participation in government.
Athenian Control Over Allies: Athens forced the city-state Thasos back into the Delian League after it attempted to withdraw.
Acropolis Rebuilding with Tribute Money: In 437 BCE, Athens used tribute funds to rebuild temples on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, angering other Greek city-states who saw it as a symbol of Athenian dominance.
Rising Tensions with Sparta: Athenian wealth and power worried Sparta, leading to rivalry and eventually conflict.
Start of the Peloponnesian War (431 BCE): Athenian support for Corcyra against Corinth, a Spartan ally, triggered the Peloponnesian War.
Strategy of Pericles: Pericles advised Athenians to shelter within city walls and rely on their navy for supplies, which led to overcrowding and a devastating plague in 426 BCE, killing many, including Pericles himself.
Peace of Nicias (421 BCE): After ten years of war, a peace treaty was signed, temporarily halting hostilities.
Sicilian Expedition (415 BCE): Athenian leader Alcibiades promoted an invasion of Sicily. However, he fled to Sparta amid charges of impiety, and the campaign failed disastrously by 413 BCE, with the Athenian force completely destroyed.
Alcibiades' Influence on Sparta: In exile, Alcibiades persuaded Sparta to attack a weakened Athens after the Sicilian disaster.
Sparta's Alliance with Persia: Sparta secured Persian funding to build a fleet, agreeing to return Ionia to Persian control.
Athenian Defeat (405-404 BCE): Sparta's new fleet defeated Athens at Aegospotami, leading to Athens’ surrender in 404 BCE, ending the Peloponnesian War and the Athenian empire.
Spartan Dominance Post-War: Sparta imposed oligarchic governments in former Athenian territories, including the brief "Thirty Tyrants" rule in Athens.
Persian Support Against Sparta: After Sparta reneged on its promise, Persia funded Greek resistance, forcing Sparta to relinquish control of Ionia.
Rise of Thebes: Thebes defeated Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE), liberated Messene, weakening Sparta’s helot-based economy and leading to the collapse of the Peloponnesian League.
Battle of Mantinea (362 BCE): Athens and Sparta allied to counter Thebes, but the inconclusive battle marked the decline of Theban power.
End of Greek City-State Power: By 350 BCE, constant warfare left Greek city-states economically and politically weakened.
Classical “Golden Age” of Greece: This era, especially in Athens, saw advances in art, literature, philosophy, and scientific thinking, challenging traditional beliefs about the natural world and the gods.
Democritus’ Atom Theory: Democritus theorized that the universe was made up of tiny particles, “atoms,” that combined randomly.
Sophists in Athens: Sophists emerged as teachers of rhetoric in democratic Athens, raising concerns about manipulation in public persuasion.
Socrates: Known for questioning traditional beliefs and values, Socrates sought reason-based ethics, making powerful enemies and ultimately leading to his execution for “corrupting the youth.”
Plato’s Philosophy: Plato, Socrates' disciple, developed a philosophy based on the existence of a “real world” of ideas and forms beyond the material world. He established the Academy in Athens.
Aristotle’s Disagreement with Plato: Aristotle, Plato's student, argued that ideas cannot exist apart from the material world and later founded the Lyceum.
Birth of Greek Theater: Playwrights like Sophocles and Euripides used myth-based tragedies to explore philosophical questions.
Early Historians: Herodotus and Thucydides pioneered historical analysis with objective and rational explanations for human actions and conflicts.
Classical Art: Greek artists of this period developed realistic sculpture and architecture, setting standards later revived during the Renaissance.
11/15/2024
Why did King Minos bring children to Crete in his palace?
For human sacrifice
How was the minotaur
Thesus slayed the minotaur
The labyrinth was underneath the palace
The minotaur lived in the labyrinth
How did he escape?
He laid the yarn so he he knew the way to go out
The volcanic eruption impacted the entire world
Became folklore to the Egyptians
11/18/2024
The Polis
Greek city-state
Should aim for the greater good
Every community starts out having a purpose to achieve good
Everyone wants to do what is best for the community
Thought about the community as a whole
How were Athens and Sparta different if they both believed in the Polis?
Geography:
Athens was located near the sea and became a hub for trade and cultural exchange. This access to diverse influences encouraged intellectual pursuits, arts, and the development of democracy
Sparta was situated inland in the fertile Eurotas Valley, Sparta relied on agriculture and developed a militaristic society focused on maintaining control over the Helots (enslaved populations). Their isolation limited outside cultural influences
Government and Political organization:
Athens was a democracy and valued citizen participation in government. Political power was shared among free male citizens, fostering debate and innovation.
Sparta was an oligarchy ruled by two kings and a council of elders (gerousia), with decisions often focused on military needs. Political life prioritized the collective good over individual expression
Military vs. Cultural organization:
Athens focused on arts, philosophy, and education. Thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle emerged from this environment. Athenians believed in cultivating well-rounded individuals through intellectual and cultural growth
Sparta prioritized military training and discipline. Spartan society was structured around producing capable warriors, starting military training (the agoge) at a young age. Arts and intellectual pursuits were secondary to physical strength and loyalty to the state
Social Structure:
In Athens, social stratification existed, but there was mobility for some through wealth or achievement. Slaves and women had limited rights, but the society encouraged civic engagement among male citizens
In Sparta, the society was rigidly divided into Spartans (elite warrior class), Perioikoi (free non-citizen laborers), and Helots (enslaved agricultural workers). Spartan women, however, had more rights and freedoms compared to Athenian women, as they were expected to manage households while men focused on military duties
Education and Philosophy:
In Athens education aimed to develop intellectual and rhetorical skills. Philosophy, science, and arts flourished, creating a culture of inquiry and debate
In Sparta, education centered on military training, discipline, and endurance. Intellectual development was limited to practical needs for war and survival
A women who lives in Sparta vs. a women who lives in Athens
Sparta had more freedom
Sparta could get educated and play sports
Athens was raised to be a good housewife
11/19/2024
Greco-Persian Wars
Greece combined all together to fight Persia
The Greeks won the war
Started because the Greek colonies in Ionia rebelled against Persian rule
Colony: an area under full or partial political control of another country
499-479 BCE
Battle of Marathon: 490 BCE
Battle of Thermopylae: 480 BCE
Persians sack and burn Athens: 480 BCE
Battle of Salamis: 480 BCE
Battle of Plataea: 470
The Battle of Thermopylae was the most important battle
At the end of the war, Athens was on top and very powerful
Homer wrote his epics in eighth century BCE
Greeks became more sophisticated in their work
Greeks traveled to Olympia every year to compete in athletic competitions
11/19/2024 Chapter 6.3 Notes
End of the Classical Period and Rise of the Hellenistic Period
The Classical period ended with Greece losing its freedom to the Kingdom of Macedon.
Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, marking the beginning of the Hellenistic period (323–31 BCE).
Alexander's empire was divided among his generals: Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Antigonus.
The Kingdom of Macedon
Located in present-day Greece and northern Macedonia.
Macedonians adopted Greek culture but spoke a different language.
King Philip II (359–336 BCE) transformed Macedon into a military power.
Philip's innovations included a powerful infantry and cavalry.
Philip defeated Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE) and aimed to unite Greece against Persia but was assassinated in 336 BCE.
Alexander the Great
Succeeded Philip II and suppressed rebellions in Greece and Thrace.
Conquered the Persian Empire with key victories at Issus (333 BCE) and Gaugamela (330 BCE).
Burned Persepolis, possibly as revenge or during a drunken celebration.
Extended his campaign to central Asia and the Indus River valley but faced mutiny in 326 BCE.
Died in 323 BCE in Babylon at age 33.
Wars of the Successors
After Alexander's death, his generals fought for control in the Wars of the Successors.
Pyrrhus of Epirus temporarily ruled Macedon but is remembered for "pyrrhic victories."
By the mid-3rd century BCE, Alexander's empire split into:
Antigonid Kingdom: Macedon and Greece.
Ptolemaic Kingdom: Egypt, ruled by Ptolemy and his descendants.
Seleucid Kingdom: Much of the former Persian Empire.
Hellenistic Culture and Society
Hellenistic culture blended Greek and local traditions from the Mediterranean to central Asia.
Greek cities, like Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Turkey, became cultural and intellectual hubs.
Mystery religions (e.g., Isis worship, Mithraism) and new philosophies (e.g., Stoicism, Epicureanism) gained popularity.
Judaism spread, and the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek.
Art and Influence
Hellenistic art and architecture flourished, blending Greek and local styles.
Bactrian and Indian regions incorporated Greek artistic influences.
Coins from this period provide evidence of cultural exchanges.
Powerful Hellenistic Women
Women like Arsinoe (Ptolemaic Egypt) and Cleopatra VII achieved political power.
Dynastic marriages often secured alliances and influenced political outcomes.
Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great
Most Greek cities in this period were no longer independent since they were usually under the control of one of the Hellenistic kingdoms.
Mithras: a Persian sun god worshiped by the Medes
11/20/2024
TEST QUESTION: How did the results of the Persian Wars lead into the Great Peloponnesian War?
How did the end of the Peloponnesian war allow Alexander the Great to do what he did?
What did Alexander the Great do?
After the war, Sparta briefly dominated the Greek world but was soon challenged by other powers such as Thebes and eventually Macedonia, where Alexander would later emerge as a major figure.
He asserted power over the Macedonian empire and the greek states
In 334 BCE, he began his famous military campaigns. First against Persia, eventually leading to his conquest of much of the known world, from Asia Minor to Egypt and India.
By the time of his death he had created one of the largest and most powerful empires in history
He expanded his empire from Greece to Egypt
How did the end of the Peloponnesian war allow Alexander the Great to do what he did?
It weakened the Greek city-states economically and militarily wise
Philip II reformed Macedonia
Persia had interfered in Greek affairs, but their interference soon began to decline
Because the Greeks were weakened, they would accept the leadership of Macedonia
Macedonia was less directly impacted by the Peloponnesian War and retained its natural and human resources. This allowed Philip and later Alexander to invest heavily in military campaigns and infrastructure
11/21/2024
Pericles: the leader of Athens during the Golden Age (461 BCE)
Leader between the Persian war and Peloponesian war
In charge of the success of the Persian war and the destruction of the great Peloponnesian war
Died of plague
King of Persia during round #1: Darius
Nike means “We Won”
Ionian revolt started the Persian Wars
Darius was the one who wanted revenge on Greece
Battle of Marathon: 490 BCE
Salamis was the “turning point” of the war
Naval battle
Peloponnesian war was between Athens and Sparta
Parthenon is the Roman building
Ordered to be built by Pericles
Greece was weak and in shreds after the Peloponnesian war
Direct Democracy where everyone votes and makes decisions about everything
Delian League was formed by the Greek city-states
In 338 BCE, Macedonia conquered Greece
Democracy: ruled by the people
Oligarchy: ruled by a s,all group of people
Republic: ruled by representatives
Monarchy: ruled by a king or queen
Themistocles: Athenian general who convinced the Athenians and the rest of the Greeks ro retreat and lower the Persians to the lower point of the battle
Allowed them to follow the Persians
12/01/2024 Edpuzzle
What were the Greek city-states attempting to do for the first time?
Join together to defeat a common enemy
The Persian War was a series of battles fought between the Persian Empire and................
Greek Patriots from Athens and Sparta
What did the Persian Empire think would help them to an easy victory?
A large number of soldiers
What advantage did the Persian army have over the Greeks?
The Persians had far more soldiers than the Greeks.
What was the new style of fighting they are discussing here?
The phalanx
How were the Greeks able to dominate the Persians using the phalanx style of fighting?
They were working together as a team, side by side pushing through the Persian army.
What was the result of using the Greek Phalanx against the Persian army?
The Persians scattered and retreated.
What did the Athenians build to remember the defeat of the Persian army?
The Parthenon
Pausanias will be remembered as the Spartan commander who won the war
Sophanes will be remembered as the bravest of all
12/02/2024 Chapter 6.4 Notes
Greek Influence on Rome:
Early Romans adopted Greek culture, including gods, myths, and ideas like governance by citizens.
Roman language and culture influenced later European societies and languages (e.g., Romance languages).
Founding of Rome:
Rome was traditionally founded in 753 BCE by Romulus, who killed his twin brother Remus over a boundary dispute.
Early Roman society valued boundaries, citizenship, and integration of outsiders.
The Roman Republic:
Established in 509 BCE after overthrowing Etruscan king Tarquin the Proud following the rape of Lucretia.
Highlighted Roman respect for the rule of law and opposition to tyranny.
Social Classes and Conflict:
Society is divided into patricians (elite) and plebeians (commoners).
Struggle of the Orders: Plebeians sought equality, first striking in 450 BCE, resulting in the written Twelve Tables of laws.
Lucretia's Story and Roman Values:
Lucretia, a symbol of chastity and loyalty, chose suicide after her rape to preserve her honor.
Her death reflected Roman values of virtue, family honor, and resistance to tyranny.
Archaeological Evidence:
Discoveries (e.g., wall on Palatine Hill, Greek pottery) support elements of Rome's founding stories.
Plebeian Assembly and Tribune Reforms
450 BCE: Plebeians began meeting in the Plebeian Assembly, annually electing ten tribunes.
Tribunes could veto harmful actions by public bodies or officials, protecting plebeian interests.
367 BCE: One of the two consuls had to be a plebeian.
287 BCE: The Plebeian Assembly could pass laws applicable to all Roman citizens.
By the 3rd century BCE, plebeians gained the ability to serve as officials, pass laws, and join the Senate.
Roman Political Structure
Assemblies:
Plebeian Assembly: For plebeians, organized by tribes, elected tribunes.
Tribal Assembly: Included both plebeians and patricians, elected quaestors (treasurers).
Centuriate Assembly: Organized by wealth, could declare war and elect military commanders.
Senate:
Most powerful institution, controlled finances, advised officials, and held lifelong memberships.
Patron-Client System
Wealthy patrons supported less affluent clients in exchange for political loyalty.
Patrons wielded significant influence through inherited client networks.
Roman Expansion in Italy
Used policies of "divide and conquer," avoiding war with coalitions.
Established colonies and built roads to secure newly conquered regions.
Integrated former enemies as allies, some granted Roman citizenship.
Punic Wars (264–146 BCE)
First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Rome defeated Carthage and annexed Sicily.
Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy was repelled; Rome defeated Carthage at the Battle of Zama.
Third Punic War (146 BCE): Rome destroyed Carthage, eliminating it as a rival.
Conquest of Greece and Macedonia
Rome defeated Macedon (Philip V) and Seleucid Empire (Antiochus III), gaining control over Greece and Asia Minor.
168 BCE: Macedon became a Roman province.
146 BCE: Rome sacked Corinth and destroyed Carthage, securing Mediterranean dominance.
Social, Economic, and Political Problems:
Military Conquests and Impact: Continuous wars (3rd-2nd centuries BCE) caused social and economic upheavals, leaving soldiers’ farms neglected or sold.
Rise of the Proletariat: Displaced farmers moved to Rome, forming a landless working class dependent on free food, entertainment, and jobs.
Corruption and Political Instability: Politicians used public entertainment and gangs to gain power, eroding traditional systems of patronage.
Economic Changes:
Large Plantations (Latifundia): Wealthy landowners replaced small farms with estates worked by enslaved people, displacing more Roman farmers.
Enslaved Workforce: Mass enslavements from wars and piracy supplied cheap labor, but led to violent revolts (e.g., Spartacus’s rebellion, 73–71 BCE).
Political Challenges:
The Gracchi Brothers:
Tiberius (133 BCE): Proposed land redistribution to help landless Romans. Killed by senators fearing loss of power.
Gaius (121 BCE): Advocated free grain, land distribution, public works, and courts to check senatorial corruption. Met with violent suppression and died.
Rise of Military Power (Client Armies):
Military Reforms:
Gaius Marius (107 BCE) allowed landless Romans to join the army, creating professional soldiers loyal to commanders rather than Rome.
Armies became political tools, as generals promised rewards to soldiers for loyalty.
Civil Wars and Factionalism:
Populares vs. Optimates:
Populares sought popular support for reforms.
Optimates defended traditional elite power in the Senate.
Key Conflicts:
Sulla vs. Marius: Civil wars erupted when generals used armies to seize control of Rome.
Sulla became a dictator, executing enemies and reforming laws before retiring in 79 BCE.
Key Outcomes:
Decline of Republican Traditions: Repeated power grabs, violence, and corruption eroded the Republic’s stability.
Transition Toward Empire: By 50 BCE, the Republic's political systems were unsustainable, paving the way for imperial rule.
Important Events:
Rise of the Proletariat: Displacement of farmers and urban overcrowding.
Spartacus Revolt (73–71 BCE): Enslaved uprising crushed; thousands crucified.
Gracchi Reforms and Deaths (133–121 BCE): Failed attempts at land redistribution.
Civil War and Client Armies: Generals like Sulla and Marius used armies for political dominance.
Sulla’s Dictatorship (82–79 BCE): Attempted reforms but failed to stabilize the Republic.
Athenians lost the Peloponesian war, Sparta won
Three philosophers
Socrates
Plateau
Aristotle
WORD TO KNOW: Hellenistic
How did the Greeks win even though they lost?
The conquest from Alexander the Great created a protection and granted the Greeks protection and help.
Although they had lost the war, they had won with the fact that they were conquored and were now protected and helped.
12/03/2024
Who comprised the earliest civilization in Ancient Greece, dating from around 2800 BCE?
Minoans
What warrior people had a civilization on the Peloponnese?
Mycenaeans
The Dark age of the Greeks resulted in
Population decline
Lack of food production
Lack of learning and writing
The Myceaneans fought the Trojan war in…
Troy
What reformer created a law code for Athens?
Solon
What legacy comes from Cleisthenes
Council of 500
Democratic elections
Perisnas invaded Greece from the East
Xerxes fought in Thermopylae and Salamis
Fought after Darius died
Pericles rebuilt Athens
Peloponesian war broke out between Athens centered centered Delian league against Sparta
Socrates taught by asking questions
Hippocrates was associated with medicine
Aristotle taught Alexander the Great
Solon freed people from debt
Myceanaeans won the Trojan war
Helot: unpaid Spartan worker
12/05/2024
“You don’t know what you don’t know”
Plato thought most people lived their life in the cave, that people were not enlightened
The allegory is telling us that most people, even a philosopher, couldn’t see the real things