Transformations of North America, 1450–1700: The Native American Experience

Migration and Peopling of the Americas

  • First Americans migrated from Asia via a land bridge during the last Ice Age.
  • Second wave by water across the Bering Strait occurred around 8,000 years ago8{,}000\text{ years ago}; ancestors of the Navajos and the Apaches.
  • Third wave around 5,000 years ago5{,}000\text{ years ago}; forebears of the Aleut and Inuit.
  • For roughly 300 generations, the Americas were largely cut off from the rest of the world.
  • Densest populations developed in: 20,000,00020{,}000{,}000 people in central Mexico and 12,000,00012{,}000{,}000 in the Andes.
  • In North America, a secondary migration moved eastward across the Rockies into the Mississippi Valley and eastern woodlands.
  • Around 6,000 BCE6{,}000\text{ BCE}, some Native American peoples in present-day Mexico and Peru began domesticating crops.
  • Maize in Mesoamerica; potato in Peru.
  • Agricultural surpluses enabled population growth and laid the foundation for wealthy urban societies in Mexico, Peru, and later in the Mississippi Valley and southeastern woodlands.

American Empires

  • Two great empires — the Aztecs and the Incas — dominated the landscape in Mesoamerica and the Andes.
  • Key to power: dense populations, productive agriculture, and an aggressive bureaucratic state; each had an impressive capital.

Aztec Empire: Tenochtitlán

  • Founded in 13251325; at height around 15001500, population about 250,000250{,}000.
  • The Aztec state controlled the fertile valleys; merchants forged trading routes.
  • Tribute and trade brought gold, textiles, turquoise, obsidian, tropical bird feathers, cacao.
  • Encountered by the Spanish in 1519; described as a vast, wealthier market than many European cities.
  • Society ruled by priests and warrior-nobles; captured enemies were sacrificed in ritual murders to sustain the cosmos and fertility.

Inca Empire: Cuzco

  • Cuzco located more than 11,00011{,}000 feet above sea level; perhaps 60,00060{,}000 residents.
  • Dense network of roads, storehouses, and an administrative system.

Causes of empire-building in central Mexico and the Andes

  • Dense populations and productive agriculture enabled urban growth and state-building.
  • Aggressive bureaucratic states and thriving trade/tribute networks.
  • Capital cities served as political and economic hubs (Tenochtitlán, Cuzco).
  • Infrastructure such as roads and storehouses supported administration and resource distribution.