Tareq Y. Ismael_ Jacqueline S. Ismael - Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East_ Continuity and Change-Routledge (2012)-part-7

The Syrian Arab Republic and the Lebanese Republic

Overview of Geographic and Historical Context

  • Syria has historically encompassed areas along the Eastern Mediterranean between Turkey and Egypt since ancient times.

  • Post-World War I, the region was divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Transjordan (now Israel and Jordan).

  • Under Ottoman rule (1516-1918), Syria was divided into three villayets: Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, along with two mutasarrifiyyahs: Jerusalem and Mount Lebanon.

Sectarian System Under Ottoman Rule

  • The Ottoman millet sectarian system governed Lebanon, granting autonomy to different religious groups, particularly the Christian Maronites in Mount Lebanon.

  • A Christian governor was appointed for Mount Lebanon, influenced by an administrative council representing various religious segments.

  • The Young Turks abolished this system, but its political influence persisted in Lebanese politics.

Post-WWI Developments

  • After WWI, British and French forces controlled coastal areas while Arab forces held the interior under Sharif Faisal's leadership, aiming for a united Arab state.

  • Faisal established an Arab national government in Damascus from November 1918 to July 1920.

  • The Syrian General Congress in March 1920 proclaimed Faisal king of Syria based on nationalist sentiments.

French Mandate and Its Impact

Mandates and Colonial Outcomes

  • The League of Nations mandate system positioned French and British colonial powers in charge of former Ottoman territories through the Sykes-Picot Agreement.

  • At the San Remo Conference (1920), the northern half of Syria was allocated to France, with the south (Palestine) assigned to Britain.

  • French rule suppressed nationalist aspirations and led to the division of Syria into administrative units.

Formation of the Republic of Lebanon

  • August 30, 1920, marked the establishment of Greater Lebanon, which later became the Republic of Lebanon in 1926.

  • The Basic Law established a French high commissioner responsible to France, promoting direct rule until a constitution was introduced in 1925, which was later suspended.

  • The 1924-1925 Druze uprising against French rule exemplified resistance in Syria.

Nationalism and Strikes for Independence

  • Continuous nationalist agitation in Syria persisted, with significant mobilizations leading to a treaty negotiated by the French in 1936 offering gradual independence.

  • The political landscape remained fractured until pro-French elements lost influence to nationalist leaders by 1943, marking the start of full independence from France.

Syrian Arab Republic Post-Independence

Characteristics and Challenges

  • Syria, with an area of 185,180 sq km and a population of nearly 23 million, became a center for Arab nationalism.

  • Geography hindered unification efforts due to the absence of natural integrative factors.

  • Socioeconomic instability led urban centers to dominate political processes, sidelining rural populations.

Dynamics of Post-Independence Governance

  • Following independence in 1945, Syria experienced government instability, marked by military coups and transitions primarily led by Sunni Muslims.

  • The emergence of strong sectarian affiliations, especially in political and military spheres, influenced power dynamics post-independence.

Military Influence in Politics

Coup Culture and Political Instability

  • Corruption and dissatisfaction with governance led to military coups, starting with Colonel Husni al-Za‘im in March 1949.

  • This initiated a cycle of coups characterized by military governance rather than civilian authority, culminating in the establishment of a turbulent regime system.

  • Various ideologically driven parties emerged, notably the Ba‘th Party advocating Arab unity and socialism, gaining political ground.

Union with Egypt

  • The appeal of Nasserism in 1956 led to calls for unity with Egypt, influenced by domestic political maneuvers and fears regarding rising leftist ideologies.

  • Following an informal agreement for union with Egypt, internal dissent and disparities between political systems prompted rising tensions within the united framework.

Rise of the Ba‘th Party

Birth and Ideology

  • The Ba‘th Party, advocating unity, freedom, and socialism, garnered substantial support among minorities and those disillusioned with prior power structures.

  • Following the breakup of the UAR in 1961, a power struggle ensued, leading to the internal consolidation of Ba‘thist figures in military and political spheres.

Infighting and Power Struggles

  • Competitions for power within the military between factions like al-Assad and Jadid marked the tumultuous political landscape, amplified by the 1967 defeat in the Six-Day War.

  • Al-Assad's rise culminated in a coup in 1970 amidst an environment of extreme tensions between civilians and military.

Al-Assad's Regime

  • Hafez al-Assad's presidency saw the consolidation of authoritarian control, where civilian governance was subdued by military influence.

  • Reforms initiated aimed at economic recovery and governance mechanisms led to a centralized authoritative regime.

  • The decade following Al-Assad's rule emphasized suppression of dissent, particularly illustrated during the brutal Hama uprising.

Foreign Relations and Regional Influence

Syria's Place in International Diplomacy

  • Known for its opposition to Israel and advocacy for Arab nationalism, Syria’s foreign policy was often compounded by its complex ties to Lebanon and regional powers.

  • The assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik al-Hariri in 2005 significantly influenced internal Lebanese dynamics, amplifying sectarian tensions and anti-Syrian sentiments.

The Republic of Lebanon

Historical and Sectarian Dynamics

  • Lebanon’s political structure is characterized by a delicate sectarian balance established post-independence, which has often been disrupted by conflicts and instability.

  • The presence of diverse sects and religious affiliations complicates peace efforts; tensions have historically escalated into violent confrontations.

Civil War and Aftermath

  • The civil war (1975-1990) led to widespread destruction and a profound socioeconomic toll, necessitating extensive reconstruction efforts which largely favored political elites.

  • Despite reconstruction initiatives after the civil war, Lebanon remains marked by unresolved socio-political issues, including the enduring presence of Palestinian refugees and sect-based tensions.

Modern Political Landscape

  • Lebanon's current politics are influenced by both traditional power brokers and emerging movements like Hizbollah, linked to regional powers like Iran and Syria.

  • The post-war arrangement has continued to experience fractures along ethnic and sectarian lines, leading to ongoing political volatility and public unrest.