A History of the United States Bureaucracy: From the Spoils System to the Regulatory State

The Foundations of the Patronage System in the United States

• Until approximately $100$ years ago, the hiring and firing of government employees in the United States was governed by the patronage system.
• Definition of Patronage: A system where individuals are hired for government positions based upon personal connections, political favors, or support provided during election cycles (local or national).
• Etymology: The phrase originates from the concept of "spoils of war."
• Equivalency: In the context of political science and history, the "Patronage System" and the "Spoils System" are used as roughly equivalent terms.
• Underlying Philosophy: The system is summarized by the phrase, "To the victor goes the spoils," meaning the winner of an election earns the right to distribute political jobs as rewards to supporters.

The Shift to the Spoils System Under Andrew Jackson

• Pre-$1829$ Bureaucracy: From the Founding of the United States until roughly $1829$, government jobs were largely held by white, upper-class elites. These "upper crust" Founding Fathers often hired their associates, but they did not typically engage in the mass termination of existing officeholders when a new administration took power.
• The Election of $1828$: Andrew Jackson, often characterized as a "man of the people," was elected president.
  • Jackson’s origins are variously cited as Tennessee or North Carolina, as the area of his birth was the same location at the time.
  • Jackson carried a significant political grudge following the election of $1824$, where he won the popular vote but lost the presidency in the Electoral College.
• Personal Motivation: During his presidential campaign, Jackson's political opponents targeted his wife, Rachel Jackson.
  • Rachel had a difficult first marriage and believed she was legally divorced before marrying Jackson in Natchez.
  • Because the divorce was not finalized for another year, she was technically a bigamist. Jackson and Rachel remarried once the divorce was official, but opponents used this history to malign her character.
  • Rachel died after the election but before Jackson’s inauguration. Jackson blamed his political enemies for her death, believing their attacks caused her heart to fail.
• Implementation of the Spoils System: Driven by personal animosity toward the existing political establishment, Jackson fired the existing federal employees and replaced them with his own loyalists. This placed the patronage system into "hyperdrive," solidifying the Spoils System as the standard for federal employment.

The Height of Patronage and Early Presidential Perspectives

• Cycle of Turnover: Following Jackson, every new president began to install their own favorites into every cycle of government.
• The Post Office: During the 19th century, the most desirable patronage jobs were within the Post Office. Since every city had a post office, the position of "postmaster" became the primary reward for political loyalty.
• Abraham Lincoln Anecdote: During the height of the patronage system, President Lincoln was constantly besieged by job-seekers.
  • On one occasion, while suffering from malaria, Lincoln instructed his aides to let the job-seekers in, stating, "I have something I want to give them." He was referring to his malaria.

The Assassination of James Garfield and the End of the Spoils System

• James Garfield (President): A former Civil War general who favored changing the patronage system, though Congress initially showed little interest in reform.
• Charles Guiteau (The Assassin): Guiteau was a mentally unstable individual who became the catalyst for civil service reform.
  • Guiteau was a former member of the Oneida Community, a "free love" or non-monogamous colony (the community later transitioned into the Oneida silverware and plate company after the younger generation rebelled and moved to Orange County, California, to pursue monogamous relationships).
  • Guiteau was kicked out of the Oneida community twice, earning the nickname "Charles Get-Out."
  • Political Delusion: Guiteau believed he was responsible for Garfield's election victory. He had written a speech for Ulysses S. Grant and, when Grant did not run, he simply crossed out Grant’s name and wrote "Garfield."
  • Demand for Reward: Based on this recycled speech, Guiteau demanded a patronage job, specifically an ambassadorship to Vienna and later Paris. After being ignored by the Secretary of State, he decided to assassinate the President to get attention for his job request.
• The Shooting: Guiteau purchased a small gun that he specifically chose because he thought it would look good in a museum (though the gun was eventually stolen and remains lost).
  • The Event: There was no Secret Service protection for the President at the time. Guiteau approached Garfield from behind at a train station (near the current Treasury building) and shot him twice.
  • Factional Context: Upon shooting the President, Guiteau shouted, "I'm the stalwart of stalwarts and Arthur is now president."
  • The "Stalwarts" were a specific faction within Garfield's political party that favored the continuation of the patronage system.

The Medical Decline and Death of President Garfield

• Medical Malpractice: Garfield's death was largely the result of poor medical practices rather than the bullet itself.
  • Doctors, led by a Civil War physician named Doctor Bliss, did not understand germ theory or sanitization. They used unwashed hands and even sticks found on the ground to probe Garfield’s wound for the bullet.
  • Garfield’s wife brought in a doctor who advocated for hand-washing, but Dr. Bliss ridiculed and dismissed these sanitary techniques.
• Sepsis and Suffering: Garfield developed pyemia ($P\,Y\,E\,M\,I\,A$), a condition of unchecked internal infections and sepsis.
  • He suffered for months, losing over $50\,lbs$.
  • He eventually requested to be moved to his house by the sea to die.
  • Public Response: American citizens worked rapidly to extend railroad tracks directly to the house so Garfield would not have to be moved far. People laid straw and hay on the tracks to make the train ride smoother for the dying President.

The Trial and Execution of Charles Guiteau

• Defense: Guiteau was defended by his brother-in-law (who was forced into it by Guiteau's sister) because no other lawyer would take the case.
• Trial Behavior: Guiteau argued in court that he did not kill the President, but rather the doctors' infections did (a claim that modern historians generally agree with).
• Final Plans: Guiteau remained delusional in prison, dictating an autobiography that included a personal advertisement for a "young Christian lady" and planning a book tour and a run for the presidency.
• Execution: Guiteau requested a full orchestra for his execution, which was denied. He was allowed to read his poem titled "I am going to the LORDY" before he was hanged.

Legislative Reform: The Pendleton Act of 1883

• The trauma of Garfield’s assassination led to the passage of the Pendleton Act (also known as the Civil Service Reform Act of $1883$).
• Key Provisions:
  • Transitioned the federal government to a merit-based civil service.
  • Classified federal employment into specific "grades."
  • Appointments were mandated to be based on the results of competitive examinations rather than political loyalty.

The Development of the Modern Regulatory State

• Early 20th Century Public Health Crises: Public demand for regulation grew due to dangerous and unregulated products:
  • "Quack cures": Cocaine tooth drops, heroin sold over the counter, and tapeworms sold for weight loss.
  • Adulterated Food: Bakers used Plaster of Paris in bread because it was cheaper than wheat and created the white color consumers preferred, leading to malnutrition and death.
  • Cosmetic Hazards: Copper used in makeup for green pigments caused blindness in some users.
• Key Legislation and Influences:
  • Sherman Antitrust Act: Designed to combat monopolies.
  • Federal Reserve Act: Established to regulate the national economy.
  • The Jungle by Upton Sinclair: Sinclair’s exposé of the meatpacking industry (accidental deaths, contaminated product) horrified the public.
  • Teddy Roosevelt's Response: After confirming Sinclair's accounts (including workers falling into machinery and becoming part of the product), Roosevelt pushed for the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act.
• Expansion Eras:
  • 1930s (Franklin D. Roosevelt): Massive expansion of government jobs and oversight via the New Deal.
  • 1960s (Lyndon B. Johnson): Expansion through the "Great Society," including the creation of Medicare and Medicaid.
• The Regulatory State: By the mid-20th century, the primary function of the bureaucracy shifted toward regulation, leading to the modern definition of government as a "regulatory state."