Post Spanish-American War
The Age of Imperialism in the 19th Century
• The last quarter of the 19th century is known as the age of imperialism, with rival European empires dividing the world.
• The United States remained a second-rate power during this period.
• In 1880, the Ottoman Empire closed three foreign embassies, choosing Sweden, Belgium, and the United States.
• The Berlin Congress of 1884-1885 divided Africa among European powers, but the United States attended because of its relationship with Liberia but did not sign the final agreement.
• A "new imperialism" arose after 1870, dominated by European powers and Japan.
• By the early 20th century, most of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and the Pacific had been divided among these empires.
• The expansion of imperial power was justified as bringing modern "civilization" to non-European peoples, with the promise of self-government.
• The natives would be instructed in Western values, labor practices, and the Christian religion. Eventually, they would be allowed the right of self-government, although no one could be sure how long this would take.
The 1890s marked a significant shift in America's global relations, with the country becoming an emerging world power.
• Prior to the 1890s, American expansion had primarily focused on the North American continent. But the 1890s marked a major turning point in America’s relationship with the rest of the world. Americans were increasingly aware of themselves as an emerging world power
• Ever since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, to be sure, many Americans had considered the Western Hemisphere an American sphere of influence
• The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 and President Grant's attempts to annex the Dominican Republic were significant factors in American expansion.
• The last territorial acquisition before the 1890s was Alaska, purchased from Russia in 1867 Secretary of State William H. Seward.
• Seward was mostly interested in the Aleutian Islands, a part of Alaska that stretched much of the way to Asia and that, he believed, could be the site of coaling stations for merchant ships plying the Pacific.
• The focus shifted from territorial possessions to expanded trade, with companies like Singer Sewing Machines and John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company aggressively marketing their products abroad.
• Middle-class American women's increasing demand for foreign goods, such as "Oriental" fashions and exotic spices, fueled the economic penetration of the Far East.
American Influence Overseas in the Late 19th Century
Religious Missionaries
• Over 8,000 missionaries traveled abroad in the late 19th century to spread Christianity, prepare for the second coming of Christ, and uplift the poor.
• Inspired by Dwight Moody, a Methodist evangelist, the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions sent over 8,000 missionaries, employing those with few opportunities, including blacks and women.
American Expansionism
• Late-nineteenth-century thinkers promoted American expansionism, advocating for the spread of Anglo-Saxon institutions and values to "inferior races" worldwide.
• Naval officer Alfred T. Mahan argued that no nation could prosper without a large fleet of ships engaged in international trade, protected by a
powerful navy operating from overseas bases.
• Mahan published his book in the same year that the census bureau announced that there was no longer a clear line separating settled from unsettled land. Thus, the frontier no longer existed.
• James G. Blaine, secretary of state during Benjamin Harrison’s presidency, was influenced by Mahan. He urged the president to acquire strategic naval bases like Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Cuba.
Hawaii's Economic and Political Relations with the United States
• Hawaii was closely tied to the United States through treaties that exempted sugar imports and established an American naval base at Pearl Harbor.
• The economy was dominated by American-owned sugar plantations, employing native islanders and laborers under long-term contracts.
• in 1893, a group of American planters organized a rebellion that
overthrew the Hawaii government of Queen Liliuokalani.
• Harrison submitted a treaty of annexation to the Senate. After determining that a majority of Hawaiians did not favor the treaty, Harrison’s successor, Grover Cleveland, withdrew it.
• The United States finally annexed the Hawaiian Islands in July 1898 during the Spanish-American War.
• In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution expressing regret for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii.
• The depression in 1893 heightened the belief that a more aggressive foreign policy was necessary to stimulate American exports
• Government and private organizations promoted unifying patriotism, leading to the emergence of rituals like the Pledge of Allegiance and the practice of standing for the playing of "The Star-Spangled Banner."
• Mass-circulation newspapers promoted nationalistic sentiments, with newspapers like William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World selling millions of copies daily.
Spanish Government's Promises and American Responses to Cuba Crisis
• In 1897, the Spanish government promised greater self-rule in Cuba, removing General Weyler and settling the Cuban crisis.
• In February 1898, the de Lôme Letter and the Maine Incident sparked American anger and war calls.
• The de Lôme letter, written by Spanish ambassador Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, criticized President McKinley, intensifying anti-Spanish sentiment.
• The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in January 1898 led to nationwide newspaper vengeance. (However, there was no evidence that Spain did it. Newspapers offered rewards for anyone who brought forward evidence)
• The Maine sailed to Cuba in January 1898 to protect American interests, a move opposed by Spaniards opposed to Cuban government reforms.
The Maine Explosion and the US Response
• After The Maine, a battleship, sat in Havana harbor for 2 weeks, on February 15, 1898, it suddenly exploded, causing over 260 deaths.
• The US Navy investigation commenced, but Spain was blamed, leading to a rallying cry for war.
• The US Navy's official report concluded the explosion was caused by an underwater mine, but did not suggest who was responsible.
• Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont gave a speech describing the appalling conditions in Cuba, highlighting the suffering of the native population.
• President McKinley called for an armistice, closure of reconcentration camps, and Cuba's independence.
• Spain agreed to an armistice but refused to relinquish control of Cuba.
• President McKinley asked Congress to declare war on Spain, leading to the passage of the Teller Amendment which stated that after Cuba was liberated and peace was restored, the United States would “leave the government and control of the Island to its people.”.
• Spain then declared war against the US, and on April 25, Congress formally declared war on Spain.
The War
• The Spanish-American War lasted only a few months however its results were
especially dramatic
• The United States won the conflict demonstrating military power in overseas combat, and sustained few battle casualties.
• John Hay, who served as U.S. ambassador to Britain and later as secretary of state, described the conflict as “a splendid little war, begun with the highest motives, carried on with magnificent intelligence and spirit, favored by that Fortune which loves the brave.”
Spanish-American War in the Philippines
• Even though the war was ignited by conflict in Cuba, the first battle occurred in the Philippines, Spain's largest remaining colony.
• The Filipino revolt against Spain was led by Emilio Aguinaldo, a young exile.
• The US prepared for battle in the Philippines two months before the declaration of war.
• Commodore George Dewey, the American Pacific squadron commander, set sail for Hong Kong and waited for instructions to attack
• On May 1, he stormed into Manila Bay destroying the Spanish fleet.
• Dewey's squadron suffered few casualties but did not have sufficient
troops to land in Manila and take the city.
• Aguinaldo returned with rebel forces, and American reinforcements arrived in July.
• The Philippines fell to a combined force of American soldiers and Filipino rebels on August 13.
Cuban War: U.S.-Spanish Alliance
• U.S. Navy quickly set up a blockade of Havana and the island’s north coast. However, a Spanish squadron slipped into the harbor at Santiago de Cuba, at Cuba’s eastern end
• In response, President McKinley ordered troops to sail for Santiago intending to join the navy there and engage the Spanish
• The U.S. Army in Cuba, led by General Shafter, included African American soldiers, volunteer regiments, and Theodore Roosevelt's First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, known as the Rough Riders (which included college athletes and cowboys).
• Roosevelt and the Rough Riders charged up Kettle Hill, while other U.S. forces fought the even tougher battle for San Juan Hill. With their combined efforts, the U.S. Army had successfully taken the ridge
• The U.S. Navy destroyed the Spanish squadron, surrendered Santiago on July 17, and captured Puerto Rico the following week.
• Spain had no further hope of success and agreed to a peace settlement on August 12. A brief four months after the start of the conflict, the war was over.
• Despite their swift victory, U.S. forces were not without casualties. About 5,500 Americans died in the war, mostly from tropical diseases.