Chapter 1-8: Learning and Conditioning (Vocabulary)
Classical Conditioning: Key Concepts
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. No inherent meaning or response on its own.
Acquisition
The initial or first learning stage in classical conditioning.
The conditioned response (CR) begins to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS).
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) without prior learning.
Unconditioned response (UR)
The response elicited by the US without prior learning; occurs naturally and biologically.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response after association with the US.
Conditioned response (CR)
The response elicited by the CS after it has become associated with the US; the end result of conditioning.
Lab example: Pavlovian (classical) conditioning in the lab
Apparatus: a harnessed dog, a device to measure salivation, and food (meat powder).
Before conditioning:
Neutral stimulus: ringing a bell or tone (no salivation).
Unconditioned stimulus: food/meat powder.
Unconditioned response: salivation to the food.
Conditioning phase:
The bell or tone (NS) is repeatedly paired with the presentation of food (US).
The dog begins to salivate in response to the bell even when no food is presented.
After conditioning:
The bell/ tone becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS).
The conditioned response (CR) is salivation to the bell alone.
Everyday analogy:
If you haven’t eaten, the smell or sight of your favorite food can trigger salivation and a physiological response even before you start eating.
Demonstrations and classroom examples
Talia demo (neutral cue becomes conditioned through pairing)
Neutral stimulus: the word "can" (initially meaningless).
Unconditioned stimulus: water spray.
Process: repeated pairings of saying "can" with spraying water led to anticipation and a conditioned response (e.g., tensing or blinking) when hearing "can" without spray.
Conclusion: the neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited a conditioned response (CR).
The Office: Altoids example (conditioning with reward)
Unconditioned stimulus: Altoid (pleasant mouth sensation).
Conditioned response: reaching for the hand or expecting the Altoid when a cue signals it.
Demonstrates how cues can become associated with rewards and elicit conditioned behaviors.
Real-life example: Floyd at work
Neutral stimulus: being asked to come into the boss’s office.
Unconditioned stimulus: being fired in a downsizing.
Conditioned response: anxiety or faint feelings whenever the boss asks to speak in private, even at a new job.
Song and relationship memory example
Neutral stimulus: a song you hear for the first time at a meaningful moment.
Unconditioned stimuli: the people you were with (romantic partner, family, or friends).
Conditioned response: hearing the song later triggers memories of those moments.
Taste aversion (biological learning)
Taste alone can become a predictor of illness; after one negative experience (e.g., food poisoning), a person may avoid that taste in the future (robust and long-lasting).
Experimental neurosis (historical caution)
In early experiments, fear and anxiety could be induced by gradually increasing stimulus intensity (e.g., tones followed by shocks) to an irrational level, producing neurotic behavior.
Real-life trauma example
Conditioning can link neutral cues (hand movements, sounds) to traumatic memories due to past abuse, influencing reactions in new situations.
Biological tastes and experiences (example: Arby’s)
A single negative experience with a food can lead to long-term avoidance of that food item.
Key terms and their relationships
Extension (extinction of conditioned response)
If the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the CR gradually weakens and may disappear.
Over time, salivation to the CS declines and eventually stops.
Spontaneous recovery
After a period without the CS, presenting the CS again can briefly reignite the CR.
The CR reappears after a rest period due to prior learning, even though extinction occurred earlier.
Extinction vs. reinforcement
Extinction: the diminishing of a learned response when the CS no longer predicts the US.
To maintain the learned behavior, reinforcement is needed to keep the response strong.
Stimulus generalization
A conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the CS.
Example: a dog conditioned to a 500 Hz tone may salivate to slightly higher or lower tones (e.g., 600 Hz, 490 Hz) if similar enough.
Stimulus discrimination
The ability to respond only to the CS and not to similar but distinct stimuli.
Example: a dog conditioned to a 2000 Hz tone may not salivate to 500 Hz or 1900 Hz tones if the difference is salient enough.
Real-world example: dating preferences and physical traits
Conditioning can influence preferences by conditioning certain stimuli (e.g., tall, athletic partners) to be associated with positive experiences.
Experimental neurosis (ethics and caution)
Historical experiments with escalating aversive stimuli produced adverse effects; modern ethics prohibit such designs.
Classical conditioning: deeper implications
Summary of acquisition and the core mechanism
Repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) lead to the NS becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR).
This process explains how many involuntary or automatic responses are learned.
Nature and nurture in conditioning
Conditioning demonstrates how both biological predispositions and environmental pairings shape behavior.
Real-world relevance
Advertisers use conditioned responses by pairing products with positive imagery.
Fear conditioning and avoidance patterns can inform therapies for anxiety disorders.
Operant Conditioning: Key Concepts
Operant conditioning vs. classical conditioning
Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) involves learning from the consequences of voluntary behavior, rather than automatic elicitation by a stimulus.
Basic idea
Consequences of behaviors influence the likelihood that those behaviors will occur again.
The Skinner box (Skinner’s experiments)
A rodent in a box can press a lever; a reinforcement (e.g., food) is delivered following the behavior, increasing the probability that the behavior will recur.
Positive reinforcement
Presenting a pleasant stimulus after a behavior increases the likelihood of that behavior.
Example: rat presses lever; food pellet is delivered; door opens and the rat escapes. This is a positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior increases the likelihood of that behavior.
Examples:
Rainy weather: using an umbrella to avoid getting wet; the unwelcome stimulus (rain) is removed by opening the umbrella.
Car beeps until you buckle up; fastening seat belt removes the unpleasant beeping.
Email reminders or pop-up ads: they cease after you complete the requested action, reinforcing the action.
Punishment (vs. reinforcement)
Punishment is an adverse stimulus or consequence that reduces the likelihood of a behavior.
Important distinction: punishment is different from negative reinforcement (which increases a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus).
Common issues with punishment: can trigger aggression, may inhibit learning new and better responses, and may not lead to long-term behavior change.
Demonstrations of operant conditioning
Alberto example: a guided “hot-cold” style conditioning where tapping leads to a desired action (e.g., walking toward a door) as reinforcement intensifies.
The Big Bang Theory clip illustrating chocolate as positive reinforcement for correct behavior; ethical considerations of applying conditioning to people.
Practical takeaways
Punishment is not always effective and can have negative side effects.
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement can be powerful tools for shaping behavior.
The timing and consistency of reinforcement affect learning and maintenance of behavior.
Schedules of reinforcement (Skinner)
Two main categories
Ratio schedules: reinforcement after a certain number of responses.
Interval schedules: reinforcement after a certain amount of time has passed.
Specific schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR): reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (e.g., FR-10: after 10 responses).
Variable Ratio (VR): reinforcement after a varying number of responses (e.g., slot machines).
Fixed Interval (FI): reinforcement after a fixed time interval, provided a response occurs (e.g., paycheck every week).
Variable Interval (VI): reinforcement after varying time intervals (e.g., unpredictable praise, inbox email arrivals).
Real-world analogies and examples
FR: Factory workers paid after completing a fixed number of units (e.g., after every 10 cases).
VR: Slot machines; high variability in when rewards are received, hence persistent responding.
FI: Paycheck schedule; rewards come at predictable times, regardless of the number of responses in between.
VI: Email updates or sudden praise; timing varies, leading to steady but unpredictable responding.
Popularity and real-world relevance
Payday is described as the most popular schedule in society because it directly ties to regular income and expected rewards.
These schedules shape how people work and engage with tasks in daily life.
Punishment: Evidence and alternatives
Research findings on punishment
Punishment can trigger aggression and may inhibit the learning of new, better responses.
Practical alternatives to punishment
Extinction: withholding reinforcement to reduce undesired behavior.
Reinforcement of desired behavior: use positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement to shape behavior.
Early intervention and consistency: starting positive shaping strategies early and keeping consistent reinforcement schedules.
Personal and professional reflections
Spanking has been a topic of debate; ethical considerations emphasize gentler and more effective behavior shaping methods.
Real-life parenting strategies emphasize ignoring tantrums (extinction) and rewarding on-task or prosocial behavior (positive reinforcement), rather than punitive measures.
Cognitive explanations of learning
Cognitive perspective vs. behavioral perspective
Cognitive learning emphasizes changes in thinking and mental representations, not just observable behavior.
Insight learning: problem solving via a sudden reorganization of perception (the "aha" moment).
Cognitive maps: mental representations of our physical space and surroundings; used to navigate environments even when plans change.
Lab and real-world examples
Rats in mazes develop a cognitive map of routes; if a fast route is blocked, they find an alternative route, demonstrating internal representations of the environment.
Real-world example: navigating South Florida using GPS or mental maps; if GPS fails, you rely on internal maps and prior knowledge.
Implications
Human learning involves higher-order thinking and planning, not just stimulus-response associations.
Bandura and social learning theory (bridging behavior and cognition)
Albert Bandura combined elements of behavioral and cognitive perspectives.
Observational learning: learning by watching others, without direct reinforcement.
Social cognitive theory: cognition and environment interact to shape behavior.
Preview of upcoming material
Thursday: observational learning in more depth, integrating behavioral and cognitive perspectives.
Connections to prior and real-world learning
Classical conditioning provides a framework for understanding automatic, reflex-like responses shaped by experiences.
Operant conditioning explains how voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened by consequences, with practical implications for education, parenting, and workplace training.
The cognitive perspective and social learning theory broaden the view to include thinking, perception, mental maps, and observational learning, highlighting that humans are not simply passive responders to stimuli.
Real-world relevance across domains:
Marketing and advertising (pairing cues with products)
Education and classroom management (reinforcement schedules, extinction strategies)
Workplace productivity (pay structures, rewards, and feedback)
Therapy and behavior modification (exposure, cognitive restructuring, observational learning)
Summary for exam preparation
Know and distinguish key terms: NS, US, UR, CS, CR, acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.
Understand the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Be able to explain positive vs. negative reinforcement, and punishment, with definitions and examples.
Be able to describe the four schedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI) and give real-world examples.
Recognize that punishment has limitations and consider alternatives like extinction and reinforcement strategies.
Understand cognitive contributions: insight, cognitive maps, and observational learning (Bandura).
Be able to connect lab concepts to real-world examples and consider ethical considerations where applicable.
Key terms recap (quick reference)
NS: neutral stimulus; US: unconditioned stimulus; UR: unconditioned response; CS: conditioned stimulus; CR: conditioned response.
Acquisition: learning phase where CS predicts US.
Extinction: diminishing of CS-CR when US is no longer paired.
Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of CR after a rest period.
Generalization vs. discrimination: responding to similar cues vs. distinguishing between cues.
Positive reinforcement: add a pleasant stimulus after a behavior.
Negative reinforcement: remove an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior.
Punishment: adverse consequence to decrease a behavior.
Schedules of reinforcement: FR, VR, FI, VI.
Insight learning and cognitive maps: thinking processes and mental representations.
Observational learning: learning by watching others (Bandura).
Note: All mathematical references are represented with LaTeX where appropriate, e.g., US, UR, CS, CR, and simple expressions like CR_n ightarrow ext{increases with } n when describing acquisition.