Modernization and the Meiji Restoration: Comprehensive Study Guide

The End of Feudalism and the Transition to Centralized Rule

Destruction of the Bakufu System: Following the defeat of the Tokugawa shogunate in $1868$ , the initial phase of modernization required the dismantling of residual feudal elements. This specifically targeted the $260$ feudal domains known as han, which were governed by daimyos.
Role of Clan Leaders: Leaders from the Choshu and Satsuma clans utilized their influence to persuade their respective daimyos to relinquish their claims, a move that was subsequently imitated by outlying provinces.
Establishment of Prefectures: In $1871$ , the han system was officially abolished and replaced with prefectures, or ken. These new administrative units were placed under the direct control of the central government.
Daimyo Compensation: As a result of losing their domains, daimyos were compensated with $10$ percent of the revenue as personal income. Additionally, the central government assumed all responsibility for their previous debts and expenses.
The Driving Force of Reform: The primary catalysts for the economic, social, and political transformations of the Meiji Restoration were young samurai from the Satsuma, Choshu, Hizen, and Tosa clans. Having defeated the shogun, these individuals were instrumental in forming the new government and initiating early Meiji reforms.

The Meiji Constitution of 1889 and the New Legal Framework

Creation of the Constitution: Under the direction of Ito Hirobumi and with the assistance of German advisor Hermann Roesler, the Meiji Constitution was completed. It was presented as a "gift" from Emperor Meiji to Prime Minister Count Kuroda on $11$ February $1889$ .
Status of the Emperor: The Emperor was established as the absolute ruler and head of state. He was regarded as sacred and inviolable, holding total control over the nation’s foreign policy and armed forces.
Legislative Powers of the Emperor: The Emperor possessed the authority to dissolve the parliament (the Diet), initiate his own legislation, or veto any legislation passed by the Diet.
Executive Branch (The Cabinet): The Cabinet served as the decision-making body. While the Emperor appointed ministers from political parties within the House of Representatives, these ministers were responsible solely to the Emperor, not to the Diet.
The Bicameral Diet Structure:
- The House of Peers: This was the upper house, functioning as a "House of Review." Its members consisted largely of former daimyo who held life appointments.
- The House of Representatives: This was the lower house, consisting of approximately $300$ men elected every $4$ years.
Limitations on Representation: The Diet was not truly representative of the population for two primary reasons:
- Japanese women were denied the right to vote or hold political office.
- Only about $1$ percent of the population met the tax qualifications required to vote.
The Role of the Genro: While the Constitution granted the Emperor extensive powers, he often functioned as a figurehead. Actual power was concentrated in the hands of the genro (oligarchs), a powerful group that included Ito Hirobumi. Their influence was not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, but they held dominant positions in the military and government, appointing followers to the House of Peers.
Judicial Reform and the Penal Code of 1890: Western powers refused to revise unequal treaties until Japan’s legal system mirrored Western standards of justice. In $1890$ , a new penal code was introduced, influenced by French and German models. While the subsequent civil code prioritized the collective rights of the state over the individual, it provided a principled approach that satisfied Western powers.
Revision of Treaties: In $1894$ , Britain agreed to relinquish extraterritoriality—the diplomatic right where individuals are subject to their home nation's laws rather than local laws—with the change taking effect in $1899$ . Other Western nations followed this precedent.

Industrialization and the Shokusan Koygo Policy

Industrialization as a Central Goal: Between $1868$ and $1881$ , Japan focused on laying the foundations of modern industry through a policy known as shokusan koygo.
Funding and Investment: The government utilized land tax revenue to sponsor new industries. It frequently paid for heavy machinery in full and then sold the equipment to private enterprises through installment plans. This state involvement allowed for rapid industrialization within a very short timeframe.
Mechanization: Textile, cotton, and wool production saw rapid growth due to government investment and the importation of mill and spinning equipment from abroad.
The Rise of the Zaibatsu: In the $1880$ s, the government provided subsidies for technical innovation. Once enterprises became self-sufficient, the government sold its interests to wealthy industrialist families known as zaibatsu. Examples include Mitsubishi. These entities controlled vast portions of the economy until World War Two, managing factories, railways, shipyards, and munitions.
Social Impact of Economic Policy: Shokusan koygo eliminated feudal restraints and created employment for various classes. Disaffected samurai used their literacy and technical skills to lead the industrial age, while commoners (heimen) moved to urban centers for work.

Modern Infrastructure and Communication

Railways: Japan began its first railway line between Hyogo and Tokyo in $1870$ . The interest in steam technology had been sparked earlier by Commodore Perry, who brought a model steam train in $1854$ . By the mid- $1890$ s, Japan had over $3000\,km$ of track, and by $1900$ , the network covered the four major islands.
Postal Services: Modeled after the British system and facilitated by the rail network, the national postal service began in $1871$ . In $1877$ , Japan joined the Universal Postal Union to link with global services.
Telecommunications:
- Telegraph: Established between Tokyo and Yokohama in $1869$ , it provided instant news and intelligence on anti-government uprisings.
- Telephone: Alexander Graham Bell visited Japan in $1877$ . Telephones appeared in government offices shortly after, and by $1890$ , they were available to ordinary citizens at post offices.
Self-Sufficiency Paradox: Industrialization led to urban population growth, causing the fishing industry to expand exponentially to meet food demands. Despite farming improvements, by $1890$ , Japan had become dependent on foreign trade for food and essential goods.

Restrictions on Liberty and Social Inequality

Censorship of the Press: By the $1870$ s, newspapers were state-run and affordable. When critics like Saigo Takamori used the press to advocate for democratic reform, the government countered with the Press Ordinance of $1875$ , allowing the state to shut down any publication deemed harmful to the public good.
Plight of the Peasantry: Following an imperial decree in $1869$ , feudal lands were divided into prefectures. While peasants were given the right to buy, sell, and choose their crops, they faced a massive tax burden. Between $1868$ and $1881$ , $78$ percent of government funds came from land taxes. This forced many peasants into debt, loss of land, and eventual factory labor.
Status of Women: The Meiji Restoration offered very little reform for women. Under the law, they had no property rights, and children belonged to the husband.
- In $1882$ , women were banned from making political speeches.
- In $1889$ , they were banned from even listening to political speeches.
- The Civil Code of $1898$ granted husbands absolute authority over family property, marriage, and divorce.
- Impoverished families were often forced to sell daughters into government-sanctioned brothels.

Militarism and the End of the Samurai

The Satsuma Rebellion ( $1877$ ): Traditional samurai, suffering from a loss of social status, rebelled but were defeated by peasant conscripts equipped with advanced weaponry. This marked the definitive end of samurai resistance.
Military Modernization: The government prioritized the military to maintain sovereignty and reverse unequal treaties. The Imperial Army was modeled after Prussia, and the Navy was modeled after the British system.
Conscription: Expanded in $1890$ , making the army a formidable and well-trained force.
Military Influence in Government: Under the $1889$ Constitution, the military could bypass the Cabinet and enact war with the Emperor's endorsement. Cabinet ministers for the Navy and War were required to be active-duty generals.
Expansionism: Japan’s reliance on food imports fueled a desire for territorial conquest. This led to involvement in the Sino-Japanese War ( $1894$ - $95$ ), the Boxer Rebellion ( $1900$ ), and the Russo-Japanese War ( $1905$ ), as well as an alliance with Britain.

Adoption of Western Culture and Education

Cultural Westernization: Students returning from overseas missions introduced Western clothing, hairstyles, and food. Consumption of milk and cheese became a temporary craze.
Fashion and Language: The imperial family set the example by dressing as European upper-class members. Hybrid words like sabiro (a translation of Savile Row) entered the language to describe three-piece suits.
Dietary and Social Shifts: Traditional Buddhist beliefs against meat were challenged as beef dishes like Sukiyaki and Teriyaki became popular. Ballroom dancing became a prominent pastime for the elite at the Rokumeiken, a social hall opened in Tokyo in $1883$ .
Education Reform: In $1871$ , the National Ministry of Education was established, making education compulsory by $1872$ . Initially, the focus was on Western science, technology, and languages.
Imperial Rescript on Education ( $1890$ ): This decree reintroduced traditional Japanese values and Confucian ethics to counter over-Westernization. It demanded loyalty to the Emperor and the state while encouraging scientific study. Students were told to disregard Western liberalism while remaining filial to parents and harmonious in marriage.
Higher Learning: Japan’s first university was established in Tokyo in $1877$ .