APA Style Basics

Overview of APA Style

• Origin and Purpose: Developed by social and behavioral scientists to assist writers in achieving clear, precise, direct, and inclusive writing.

• Core Knowledge Domains: Encompasses paper elements and organization, academic writing style, grammar and usage, bias-free language guidelines, mechanics of style, visual display of tables and figures, in-text citations, paraphrasing and direct quotation rules, and reference list formatting.

Paper Elements and Structure

• Student Paper Formats: Commonly written student paper types include essays, research papers, and reaction or response papers.

• Mandatory Student Paper Elements:

  • Title Page: Located on page $1$. Includes:

  • Paper title

  • Author name (byline)

  • Author affiliation (typically the department of the course and the university attended)

  • Course number and name (as displayed on instructional materials)

  • Instructor name (as displayed on instructional materials)

  • Assignment due date (formatted as November 14, 2020, or 14 November 2020 depending on institutional/regional standards)

  • Page number $1$ right-aligned in the top header

  • Text: Represents the author's primary substantive contribution. Features:

  • An introduction addressing the work's importance, contextualizing it within existing literature, and stating study aims

  • Body paragraphs containing primary arguments

  • A closing discussion or conclusion section

  • Section headings to organize text

  • Reference List: Contains complete details for all sources cited within the text body.

• Optional / Supplemental Paper Elements:

  • Abstract: A brief, comprehensive summary of paper content written as a single paragraph without indentation; maximum length is typically $250$ words.

  • Footnotes: Used to supplement text content, elaborate on points, or acknowledge copyright.

  • Tables: Graphical arrangements of numerical values or textual data organized in rows and columns.

  • Figures: Any visual display that is not a table, including bar charts, line graphs, drawings, maps, and photographs.

  • Appendices: Supplementary material that provides extra detail but is non-essential to the primary text (e.g., detailed participant instruction scripts).

• Specific Sections for Research Papers and Manuscripts:

  • Introduction: Reviews background literature, contextualizes the topic, and details why the study is warranted.

  • Method: Explains the exact procedural steps, participant details, and methods used to conduct the study.

  • Results or Findings: Summarizes collected data and statistical or qualitative analyses (termed "Results" for quantitative studies and "Findings" for qualitative studies).

  • Discussion: Evaluates and interprets the findings relative to original research hypotheses, implications, limitations, and future directions.

Paper Format Guidelines

• Page Header:

  • Positioned in the top margin of every page.

  • Page Number: Placed in the top right corner using automatic page-numbering functions. Appears on all pages starting with the title page as page $1$.

  • Running Head: A shortened version of the paper title typed in ALL-CAPS. Aligned to the left margin across from the right-aligned page number. Required exclusively for professional manuscripts submitted for publication; not required for student papers unless explicitly requested by an instructor or institution.

• Font Options and Requirements:

  • Sans Serif Fonts: $11\text{-point}$ Calibri, $11\text{-point}$ Arial, or $10\text{-point}$ Lucida Sans Unicode.

  • Serif Fonts: $12\text{-point}$ Times New Roman, $11\text{-point}$ Georgia, or normal ($10\text{-point}$) Computer Modern.

  • Font Consistency: The same font family and size must be used throughout the document.

  • Exceptions: Sans serif fonts must be used within figure graphics; default font settings are used for automatically generated footnotes (typically smaller than body text).

• Line Spacing:

  • Double-space all elements of an APA Style paper, including main body text, block quotations, and the reference list.

  • Exceptions: Entries inside table bodies and text in figure images may be single-spaced, $1.5\text{-spaced}$, or double-spaced depending on visual clarity.

  • Extra Blank Lines: Add one extra blank line on the title page between the paper title and the author byline, and between text body and embedded tables or figures. Do not insert extra blank lines above or below headings, even when a heading falls at the bottom of a page.

• Margins: Set to $1\text{ in.}$ ($2.54\text{ cm}$) on all sides of every page.

• Paragraph Alignment and Indentation:

  • Alignment: Left-align text with a ragged right margin (do not use full justification).

  • Text Indentation: Indent the first line of every text paragraph $0.5\text{ in.}$ using the tab key or paragraph formatting controls.

  • Alignment and Indentation Exceptions:

  • Title Page: Center all student title page elements horizontally (except page numbers).

  • Section Labels: Center major section labels (e.g., "Abstract", "References").

  • Abstract: Left-align the first line without indentation.

  • Block Quotations: Indent the entire block quotation $0.5\text{ in.}$ from the left margin.

  • Headings: Center Level 1 headings; left-align Level 2 and Level 3 headings; indent Level 4 and Level 5 headings like standard paragraphs.

  • Tables and Figures: Left-align table and figure numbers, titles, and notes without indentation.

  • Reference List: Apply a $0.5\text{ in.}$ hanging indent to all reference entries.

  • Appendices: Center appendix section labels and titles.

• Paper Length: Defined by instructor guidelines or publisher constraints, measured in word count or page count.

Paper Organization and Heading Structure

• Heading Function: Headings structure papers logically, assisting readers in locating key content and tracking argument development.

• Five Heading Levels:

  • Level 1: Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading (Text begins as a new paragraph underneath).

  • Level 2: Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading (Text begins as a new paragraph underneath).

  • Level 3: Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading (Text begins as a new paragraph underneath).

  • Level 4: Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. (Text begins on the same line and continues as a standard paragraph).

  • Level 5: Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. (Text begins on the same line and continues as a standard paragraph).

  • Title Case Definition: Capitalize the first word, major words, and words of four letters or more.

• Standard Document Section Order:

  1. Title Page

  2. Abstract (typically omitted for student papers)

  3. Text (begins on page $2$ for student papers, page $3$ for professional papers)

  4. References

  5. Footnotes

  6. Tables

  7. Figures

  8. Appendices

  • Exceptions to Document Order:

  • Tables and Figures may be embedded directly within text following their initial callout, or placed individually on separate pages following the reference list.

  • Footnotes may be placed at the bottom of the page where called out using software footnote functions, or consolidated on a separate page after references.

Academic Writing Style

• Core Objectives: Communicate ideas clearly, concisely, and precisely while employing respectful and inclusive language.

• Continuity: Ensure a logical, orderly, and smooth flow of concepts across sentences, paragraphs, and themes.

  • Use appropriate punctuation to mark transitions and structural links.

  • Incorporate transitional words and phrases to establish contextual flow:   

    

  • Time links: then, next, after, while, since

  • Cause–effect links: therefore, consequently, as a result

  • Addition links: in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly

  • Contrast links: but, conversely, nevertheless, however, although

• Precision: Select terms carefully to avoid ambiguous meanings.

  • Maintain consistent terminology; avoid alternating between synonyms that carry subtle semantic variations.

  • Avoid colloquialisms, informal jargon, and contractions. Prefer direct, declarative sentences.

  • Avoid anthropomorphism (attributing human characteristics or actions to animals or inanimate objects).

  • Avoid illogical comparisons caused by missing structural components or nonparallel phrasing.

• Conciseness:

  • Eliminate redundant expressions and unnecessary wordiness.

  • Avoid repeating statements or padding text to meet length thresholds; develop arguments further through critical analysis and additional research instead.

  • Maintain dynamic cadence by varying sentence and paragraph length. Avoid both short, choppy fragments and overly long, convoluted paragraphs.

Grammar and Usage Guidelines

• Verb Tense Consistency by Section:

  • Literature Review / Discussing Past Research: Use Past tense (e.g., Williams (2020) addressed) or Present perfect tense (e.g., Researchers have studied).

  • Method - Procedure Description: Use Past tense (e.g., Participants took a survey) or Present perfect tense (e.g., Others have used similar approaches).

  • Reporting Results: Use Past tense (e.g., Results showed, Scores decreased, Hypotheses were not supported).

  • Personal Reactions: Use Past tense (e.g., I felt surprised), Present perfect tense (e.g., I have experienced), or Present tense (e.g., I believe).

  • Discussion of Implications: Use Present tense (e.g., The results indicate, The findings mean that).

  • Conclusions, Limitations, and Future Directions: Use Present tense (e.g., We conclude, Limitations of the study are) or Future tense (e.g., Future research should explore).

• Active vs. Passive Voice:

  • Prefer active voice to foster clarity, directness, and conciseness.

  • Active Voice: We investigated the effects of the treatment.

  • Passive Voice: The effects of the treatment were investigated.

  • Passive voice is permitted when focusing on the object of action, but should not be overused.

• Pronoun Usage:

  • Use first-person pronouns (I, we) to describe personal contributions and steps taken.

  • Do not use third-person phrasings such as "the author(s)" when referring to oneself.

  • Use I for single-author works; use we for co-authored group works.

  • Avoid editorial use of we to refer to humanity in general. Use we only for co-authors or explicit self-identification with a defined group (e.g., "As social psychologists, we…").

Bias-Free Language Guidelines

• General Principles: Treat all individuals with respect, dignity, and sensitivity. Avoid stereotypes and evaluate writing for implicit bias.

• Disability Language Approaches:

  • Person-First Language: Places the person before the condition (e.g., people with substance use disorders rather than substance abusers).

  • Identity-First Language: Centers the disability as a fundamental component of identity (e.g., autistic people instead of people with autism, Deaf people instead of people who are deaf).

  • Both person-first and identity-first approaches are valid; adhere to the specific preferences expressed by individuals or self-advocacy groups.

• Gender-Inclusive Pronouns:

  • Respect individual self-identifications (she, he, or singular they).

  • Use singular they to refer to individuals who specify they/them pronouns, or for individuals whose gender is unknown or contextually irrelevant.

  • Do not use generic he or she to describe unspecified individuals.

• Identity Characteristics: Use accurate, specific language when discussing age, disability, gender, research participation, racial/ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality.

Mechanics of Style

• Punctuation Spacing: Insert exactly one space after a period or other sentence-ending punctuation.

• Lists:

  • Use parallel syntactical structure across all items in a list.

  • Serial Comma (Oxford Comma): Always include a comma before the final conjunction in a series of three or more items.

  • Semicolons: Use semicolons to separate list items that contain internal commas.

  • Formatting Lists: Utilize standard word processor list controls. Use numbers followed by periods for sequential lists and standard bullet characters for unordered lists.

• Italics:

  • Key Terms: Italicize key terms, technical definitions, or unfamiliar foreign terms upon first mention.

  • Emphasis: Use italics sparingly for emphasis only when sentence restructuring would fail to convey intended stress.

  • Reference Entries: Italicize titles of standalone works (books, reports, websites) and journal/newspaper titles and volume numbers.

• Spelling Standards:

  • Primary reference sources are the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary and the APA Dictionary of Psychology.

  • Technology Terms: email, ebook, database, data set, internet, home page, website, webpage.

  • Prefixes and Suffixes: Prefixed words are generally written without hyphens:

  • anti $\rightarrow$ antisocial

  • co $\rightarrow$ covariate

  • non $\rightarrow$ nonsignificant

  • over $\rightarrow$ overqualified

  • pre $\rightarrow$ preexisting

  • re $\rightarrow$ reevaluate

  • un $\rightarrow$ unbiased

  • under $\rightarrow$ underappreciated

• Capitalization Guidelines:

  • General Principle: Words are lowercased unless explicit capitalization rules apply.

  • First Word of a Sentence: Capitalize sentence-initial words (except lowercase proper nouns starting a line).

  • Proper Nouns: Capitalize names of individuals, racial/ethnic groups, geographical locations, academic departments, institutions, and specific course titles.

  • Trade and Brand Names: Capitalize proprietary brand names (Zoloft, iPhone, Wi-Fi); lowercase generic terms (sertraline, smartphone, wireless).

  • Diseases, Disorders, Therapies, and Theories: Capitalize personal names within conditions or theories (Alzheimer’s disease, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, Pavlovian conditioning); lowercase generic names (depression, leukemia, five-factor model of personality, regression analysis).

  • Job Titles and Roles: Capitalize job titles when directly preceding a name (President Lincoln, Dr. Singh, Nurse Sinclair). Lowercase titles following a name (Lincoln was president) or generic role designations (doctor, registered nurse, physician assistant, psychologist, therapist, president, manager).

  • Tests and Measures: Capitalize official title names (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale); lowercase generic descriptions (an intelligence test).

  • Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters: Capitalize nouns accompanying specific letters or numbers (Study 1, Chapter 2, Step 3).

  • Title Case vs. Sentence Case:

  • Title Case (Capitalize major words): Applied to text titles in narrative, periodical titles in reference lists, test titles, paper titles, headings, and table/figure titles (e.g., The New York Times).

  • Sentence Case (Capitalize only first word, proper nouns, and sub-heading first word): Applied to titles of articles, books, reports, webpages, and standalone works within reference list entries (e.g., Gender typing of children’s toys: How early play experiences impact development).

Abbreviations and Number Rules

• Abbreviation Conventions:

  • Use abbreviations sparingly. Define non-standard abbreviations at first presentation by placing full text followed by the abbreviation in parentheses.

  • Unnecessary Definitions: Do not define standard dictionary-listed terms (IQ, AIDS), measurement units (kg, cm), Latin phrases (i.e., e.g., et al.), or statistical symbols (M, SD, df, p, N).

  • Defining Formats:

  • In standard narrative: major depressive disorder (MDD)

  • Inside parenthetical text: (major depressive disorder [MDD])

  • Combined with citations: major depressive disorder (MDD; Wald et al., 2019)

• Number Rules:

  • General Rule: Use words for numbers zero through nine; use numerals for numbers $10$ and above.

  • Mandatory Numeral Usage:

  • Statistical or mathematical functions: multiplied by 5, 3 times as many

  • Percentages, percentiles, and ratios: more than 5%, the 5th percentile, a ratio of 16:1

  • Times and dates: 5 days, about 8 months, 4 decades, 12:30 p.m.

  • Ages: was 2 years old, 15-year-old students

  • Scores and scale points: scored 4 on a 7-point scale

  • Exact monetary sums: received $5 in compensation

  • Numerals as numbers: the numeral 6 on the keyboard%

Tables and Figures

• Four Component Parts:

  1. Number: Consecutive numbering in order of mention (Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2). Formatted in bold, left-aligned.

  2. Title: Concise, descriptive text. Formatted flush left, double-spaced, in italic title case.

  3. Body / Graphic Image:

  • Table Body: Column headers and data cells formatted using table software tools.

  • Figure Image: Visual chart, diagram, or photograph including an explanatory legend for symbols, lines, or patterns.

  1. Notes: Explanatory text positioned underneath. Ordered as: (1) General note, (2) Specific note, (3) Probability note.

In-Text Citations, Paraphrases, and Quotations

• Plagiarism and Attribution: Credit must be provided for all non-original ideas, direct words, or visual displays. Failure to cite constitutes plagiarism, leading to academic penalties.

• Author–Date System: Citations require author surname(s) and publication year. Every text citation must match a reference entry (excluding personal communications).

• In-Text Citation Formatting:

  • One Author: Parenthetical (Luna, 2020); Narrative Luna (2020)

  • Two Authors: Parenthetical (Salas & D’Agostino, 2020); Narrative Salas and D’Agostino (2020)

  • Three or More Authors: Parenthetical (Martin et al., 2020); Narrative Martin et al. (2020)

  • Group Author with Abbreviation:

  • First Citation: Parenthetical (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2020); Narrative National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2020)

  • Subsequent Citations: Parenthetical (NIMH, 2020); Narrative NIMH (2020)

  • Group Author without Abbreviation: Parenthetical (Stanford University, 2020); Narrative Stanford University (2020)

• Citing Multiple Works:

  • Multiple works by same author: Separate publication years with commas (Adams et al., 2019, 2020).

  • Multiple works by different authors in one parenthetical block: Alphabetize by first author surname, separated by semicolons (Adams et al., 2019, 2020; Shumway & Shulman, 2015).

• Paraphrasing and Quotations:

  • Paraphrase: Restates concepts in original phrasing. Preferred mode of citation. Example: Personality develops over the lifespan (Redford, 2019). or As discussed by Redford (2019), personality develops over the lifespan.

  • Short Direct Quotations (< 40 words): Enclose text in double quotation marks. Include page number (p. 25) or location identifier.

  • Parenthetical: Personality traits are thought to be "relatively stable across the lifespan" (Redford, 2019, p. 25).

  • Narrative: Redford (2019) stated that personality is thought to be "relatively stable across the lifespan" (p. 25).

  • Block Quotations ($40$ words or more): Set off as a freestanding block indented $0.5\text{ in.}$ from left margin. Do not use quotation marks.

  • Parenthetical citation: Place (Author, Year, p. X) after the final punctuation mark of the quotation.

  • Narrative citation: State author and year in narrative; place page citation (p. X) after the final punctuation mark. Do not place end punctuation after closing parentheses.

Reference List Formatting and Examples

• Four Structural Components: Author, Date, Title, Source.

• Layout and Ordering:

  • Positioned on a new page after body text.

  • Section title References centered in bold.

  • Apply a $0.5\text{ in.}$ hanging indent to all entries.

  • Double-space all entries without extra blank lines between references.

  • Alphabetize entries by first author surname.

  • Chronological order for multiple works by identical author setups (earliest to most recent; n.d. comes first, in-press comes last).

  • Differentiate same-author, same-year works with lowercase letters appended to the year (2017a, 2017b), ordered alphabetically by entry title.

• Reference Entry Examples:

  • Journal Article:

  • Ouyang, K., Cheng, B. H., Lam, W., & Parker, S. K. (2019). Enjoy your evening, be proactive tomorrow: How off-job experiences shape daily proactivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(8), 1003–1019. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000391

  • Book:

  • Rabinowitz, F. E. (2019). Deepening group psychotherapy with men: Stories and insights for the journey. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000132-000

  • Edited Book Chapter:

  • Baldacchino, L. (2019). Intuition in entrepreneurial cognition. In A. Caputo & M. Pellegrini (Eds.), The anatomy of entrepreneurial decisions (pp. 29–56). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19685-1_3

  • Report:

  • World Health Organization. (2015). World report on ageing and health. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/186463/9789240694811_eng.pdf?sequence=1

  • Webpage on a Website:

  • National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, February). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index.shtml

  • Data Set:

  • Hammer, D., Melhuish, E., & Howard, S. (2017b). Millennium cohort study (ICPSR36952.v1; Version 1) [Data set]. ICPSR. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR36952.v1