7.2

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  1. Define language and demonstrate familiarity with the components of language.
  2. Understand the development of language.
  3. Explain the relationship between language and thinking.

Introduction to Language

Definition of Language:
Language is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. It is important to distinguish that while language is a form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate through postures, movements, odors, or vocalizations which are crucial for social interactions.
However, many have asserted that it is language that makes humans unique among animal species (Corballis & Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003).
This section will cover what distinguishes language as a unique form of communication, how language develops, and its impact on cognitive processes.

Components of Language

Language, whether spoken, signed, or written, consists of specific components:

1. Lexicon

  • The lexicon refers to the words of a given language. It is effectively the vocabulary of that language.

2. Grammar

  • Grammar consists of the rules used to convey meaning with the lexicon (Fernández & Cairns, 2011).
    • For example, English grammar states that most verbs receive an “-ed” at the end to indicate past tense.

3. Phonemes

  • A phoneme (e.g., the sounds “ah” vs. “eh”) is the smallest sound unit in a language. Different languages utilize different sets of phonemes.
  • Phonemes combine to create morphemes, which are the smallest units of language that convey meaning (e.g., “I” functions as both a phoneme and a morpheme).

4. Semantics

  • Semantics refers to the process by which meaning is derived from morphemes and words.

5. Syntax

  • Syntax is the organization of words into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011).

Through the application of grammatical rules, we can creatively organize the lexicon which allows communication about tangible and intangible concepts. We can articulate thoughts about physical surroundings and abstract concepts.

Language Development

Given the complexity of language, one might expect mastery to be challenging; however, children seem to acquire language quickly and with relative ease.

1. Language Acquisition Theories

  • B.F. Skinner (1957): Proposed that language acquisition occurs through reinforcement.
  • Noam Chomsky (1965): Critiqued the behaviorist perspective and theorized that language acquisition mechanisms are biologically predetermined.

The use of language appears to develop without formal instruction and seems to follow a similar trajectory across different cultures. This leads to the assertion that humans have a biological predisposition for language acquisition (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011).

Critical Period Hypothesis
  • There is a critical period during which language acquisition is most proficient, typically early in life. As individuals age, the ease of learning new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).

2. Stages of Language and Communication Development

  • 0–3 months: Reflexive communication.
  • 3–8 months: Reflexive communication with interest in others.
  • 8–13 months: Development of intentional communication and increased sociability.
  • 12–18 months: First words emerge.
  • 18–24 months: Generation of simple two-word sentences.
  • 2–3 years: Construction of sentences containing three or more words.
  • 3–5 years: Use of complex sentences and engagement in conversation.
Notable Example: The Case of Genie
  • Genie was a 13-year-old girl discovered in 1970, who had been raised in a neglectful environment with minimal social interaction. Following her removal from her abusive conditions, she showed significant improvements in language acquisition, although she struggled with grammar, indicating the critical period's effect on language development (Fromkin et al., 1974; Rymer, 1993).

Infants are attuned to the linguistic environment even before birth, showing preferences for their mother's voice and the cadence of speech (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).

Phoneme Discrimination
  • Babies initially can discriminate among all human phonemes but lose this ability by the age of 1, retaining only those used in their native language (Jensen, 2011; Werker & Lalonde, 1988; Werker & Tees, 1984).
Babbling Stage
  • Following the first months of life, infants enter a babbling stage characterized by repetitive single syllables. Notably, if raised in a sign language environment, they will exhibit babbling with hand gestures (Petitto et al., 2004).
One-Word and Vocabulary Development
  • A child’s first word is generally uttered between 1 to 18 months, often surrounded by a one-word stage where familiar nouns are emphasized, embodying larger meanings.
  • As vocabulary accrues, children produce simple sentences and exhibit a grasp of linguistic rules even as they commit errors like overgeneralization (e.g., saying “gooses” for “geese”), indicating their understanding of language structures (Moskowitz, 1978).

Language and Thought

The relationship between language and thought has been a focus of psychological investigation. Psychologists have questioned whether the language we speak influences our thoughts or vice versa.

1. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

  • Proposed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in the 1940s, this hypothesis asserts that language shapes thought. They observed that language habits influence community perspectives and interpretations.

For instance, the expression of love varies significantly across languages, leading to different thought patterns based on linguistic structures (Whorf, 1956).

Scientists critiqued this view for its absolutism and empirical limitations (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994).

Linguistic Determinism

Recent discussions revolve around how language may influence conceptualization, such as time perception, with English speakers describing time horizontally while Mandarin speakers may describe it vertically. Findings indicate differences in cognitive performance correlating to these linguistic patterns (Boroditsky, 2001).

Color Perception Study
  • Research contrasting color perception between English speakers and the Dani tribe of Papua New Guinea reveals that despite having fewer color terms, the Dani can still distinguish colors as effectively as English speakers, implying that while language may influence perception, it is not the sole determinant of cognitive abilities concerning color (Berlin & Kay, 1969; Regier & Kay, 2009).
Conclusion

These examinations underscore the complex interplay between language, thought, and cultural expression, fostering an ongoing dialogue within the field of psychology regarding how these elements coalesce in shaping human cognition.