Protected Areas and Species
Protected area (IUCN definition 2008) – a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve long-term conservation of nature with other associated ecosystem services and cultural values
Protected area categories:
- IA – Strict nature reserve, managed mainly for science/biodiversity, maintain genetic variation, e.g. Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles
- 1B – Wilderness area, protected are managed for wilderness protection, e.g. Sawtooth wilderness, Idaho, USA
- II – National Park, managed for ecosystem and recreation, e.g. Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA
- III – Natural monument and landmarks e.g. Machu Picchu, Peru
- IV – Habitat/Species management area, managed through management intervention, e.g. Skowmer, SW Wales
- V – Protected landscape/seascape, e.g. UK National Parks
- VI – Managed resource protected area, promote sustainable use of natural ecosystems and resources, e.g. Great Barrier Reef
UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
- Treaty signed at UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992
- 42 articles of treaty
Limitations of protected areas:
- Too small for wide ranging species, extinction risk increased with protected areas for some species
- Competing land-uses – protected areas not representative of range of best habitats
- Too little overall area protected
- Not well connected
- Limited resources
Conserving the broadest variety of habitats helps to conserve the broadest variety of species
Ecoregion:
A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that,
a) Share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics
b) Share similar environmental conditions, and
c) Interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence.
Selecting protected areas:
- Representative/complementary diversity
- Intact/pristine areas (proactive)
- Vulnerable to human activity (reactive)
- High/unique biodiversity (irreplaceable)
- Politically/economically feasible
There is little overlap between reactive and proactive areas
Ecological criteria for selection:
1. Threatened/declining species and habitats/biotopes
2. Important species and habitats/biotopes
3. Ecological significance
4. High natural biological diversity
5. Representativity
6. Sensitivity
7. Naturalness
Marine protected areas:
- Lagging behind terrestrial
- Less data for prioritisation/design
- Species range unlimited/boundaries less distinct
- Ocean governance fragments and unclear ownership
Jones et al. (2018) classified habitats into marine wilderness areas based on a number of criteria.
- 13.2% (∼55 million km2) of world’s ocean was classified as marine wilderness
- Little wilderness remains in coastal areas (e.g., coral reefs)
- Only 4.9% of marine wilderness is currently within marine protected areas
Many species have evolved:
- Narrow distributions (may be endemic)
- Low population densities
- Specialized habitat requirements
Extinction risk increases when populations decline due to external factors/threats
IUCN red list of threatened species was set up in 1964. It’s an index for:
- Raising awareness among public
- Guidelines for legislation
- Planning conservation programs
Each taxonomic group has an SSC (Species Survival Commission). Ideally the species is assessed every 5 years. Originally, they were only based on expert assessments:
- Extinct
- Endangered
- Vulnerable
- Rare
- Indeterminate
Categories:
- Extinct – no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died e.g. Dodo
- Extinct in the wild – only survives in cultivation, captivity, or naturalized populations outside past range e.g. Scimitar-horned Oryx
- Critically endangered – 50% probability of extinctions within 5 years or 2 generations, whichever is longer
- Endangered – 20% probability of extinction within 20 years or 10 generations, whichever is longer
- Vulnerable – 10% probability of extinction within 100 years
- Near threatened
- Least concern
- Data deficient – inadequate information to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status
- Not evaluated
It attracts attention and funds to rare species, but its not objective so can’t be used to monitor threats/outcomes
Mace and Lande (1991) proposed Red List categories based on quantitative assessment of extinction probability using viability analysis (PVA). Innovations include:
- % risk of extinction over time scale
- Flexible data requirements
Raw data to red list:
Most assessments are carried out by:
- Members of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) appoint Red List Authorities (RLAs)
- Assessments can be carried out by anyone who has sufficient knowledge of a species submitted to IUCN
Parsons (2016) suggests that some policymakers interpret ‘data deficient’ species as ‘least concern’, meaning there is no requirement to enact conservation measures. This can reduce the incentive for policy makers to support scientific investigations of the species. Some species may be endangered as abundance is naturally low, sightings are rare and distributions restricted
Applications of the red list:
- Quantitative assessment of threat
- Evaluate the state of biodiversity
- Monitor changing state of biodiversity
- Monitor outcomes of conservation actions
Red list index:
- Summarises trends across taxa
- Allows comparison between taxa
Limitations of red list:
- Assessments carried out for <2% of known species
- Insufficient capacity, training, and funding for data processing and standardization
- Unstable species taxonomy and lack of basic biological knowledge for many species