BSCI-1100 Test 1

The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America

Introduction

• The General Contractor's Impact: The emergence of the general contractor in the late 1860s significantly transformed the role of the architect in building production. (Introduction)

• Shifting Roles: Before the general contractor, architects coordinated separate contracts with tradesmen and material suppliers. (Introduction)

• Complexity and Specialization: The rise of the general contractor coincided with the growing scale and complexity of buildings and a simultaneous increase in specialization within the building industry. (Introduction)

The Origins of General Contracting

• Early Contracts: Single contracts for small projects like houses and small churches existed before the late 1860s. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Government Contracts: The term "contractor" was used in Great Britain in the early 18th century for public works like lighthouses, roads, and bridges. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Government Preference: In the United States, the term "contractor" was initially associated with government contracts, as agencies preferred single contracts for large projects. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Financing Challenges: Whole contracts for large, private buildings were uncommon due to the difficulty of financing large payrolls and material purchases for projects spanning multiple building seasons. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

The Evolution of Contracting Systems

• Late 1860s: General contractors began to appear in the late 1860s. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Multiple Systems: Until the end of the 19th century, various contracting systems coexisted, including separate contracts, day's work, and general contracting. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Day's Work: Under day's work, owners paid for labor and materials and hired superintendents to oversee the workforce. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• General Contractors' Growth: By the late 1880s, general contractors were still a minority but had become significant players in the building field, typically undertaking complex projects. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Acceptance of Whole Contracts: The idea of taking whole contracts was well established by the late 1880s. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

Factors Driving the Rise of General Contracting

• Increased Scale and Complexity: The increased scale and complexity of construction projects at the end of the 19th century, driven by private owners erecting large buildings with modern amenities, contributed to the rise of general contracting. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Working Capital Challenges: Aspiring contractors had to overcome the challenge of securing sufficient working capital, as projects became larger and the time between start and completion longer. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

Solutions to Working Capital Challenges

• Real Estate Collateral: Early contractors used real estate as collateral to obtain business loans. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Family Loans: Affluent family members provided loans to contractors. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Negotiated Payment Terms: Contractors negotiated terms with owners for more frequent payments, reducing the amount of capital needed. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

• Shifting Financing Burden: Contractors shifted the financing burden to material suppliers by obtaining long credit terms or used subcontractors and delayed their payments. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

Case Studies: Norcross Brothers and George A. Fuller Company

Norcross Brothers Company

• Early Years: Founded in 1864, Norcross Brothers Company was one of the first general contractors for buildings in the United States, possibly the first to work nationwide. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Venturesome Spirit: The brothers, James and Orlando Norcross, took whole contracts for large masonry buildings despite their carpentry background and modest financial resources. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• First Large Project: Their first large project as general contractors was Crompton's Block in Worcester, Massachusetts (1868). (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Worcester High School: The Norcross Brothers won the contract to build a high school in Worcester (completed 1871), introducing them to architect Henry H. Richardson. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Profitable Operations: The firm operated profitably and used its profits to finance new projects. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• O.W. Norcross's Cost Estimating Talent: Orlando W. Norcross's exceptional cost estimating skills were crucial to the firm's competitiveness and profitability. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Stone Construction Specialization: Norcross Brothers specialized in stone construction, working on projects like Richardson's Trinity Church in Boston (1873-76). (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Direct Employment: The firm employed tradesmen directly rather than subcontracting, a practice that seemed old-fashioned in the early 20th century. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Material Supply: Norcross Brothers supplied much of the material used in its projects, operating quarries, a brickyard, and workshops. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Trinity Church Project: The Trinity Church project was a turning point for the firm, as it involved risks due to the architect's design changes during construction. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Favorable Contract Terms: The firm secured favorable contract terms for Trinity Church, including monthly cash payments and a small retention amount. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• National Expansion: Norcross Brothers expanded its operations beyond Worcester, taking contracts for projects in distant cities. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Boston Office: The firm opened a Boston office in 1873 while building Trinity Church. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• New York City Market: Norcross Brothers entered the New York City market in the late 1870s. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Steady Growth: The firm grew steadily, employing over 1,000 men by 1886. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Large-Scale Projects: Norcross Brothers worked on massive projects like Richardson's Allegheny County Buildings in Pittsburgh (1883-88) and Marshall Field Wholesale Store in Chicago (1885-87). (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Diversification: The firm also undertook projects beyond buildings, including bridges and seawalls. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Incorporation: In 1902, the firm incorporated as The Norcross Brothers Company. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Canadian Expansion: Norcross Brothers expanded into Canada in the early 20th century, working on projects designed by American architectural firms. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Institutional Clients: The firm continued to focus on buildings for institutional clients in the United States, including schools, hospitals, libraries, clubhouses, religious buildings, and government buildings. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Competition: Norcross Brothers faced stiff competition from new contracting firms like the George A. Fuller Co. and Thompson-Starrett Co. in the early 20th century. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Stone Supply: The firm supplied stone for projects where it was not the general contractor, such as New York's Pennsylvania Station and the Field Museum in Chicago. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• O.W. Norcross's Death: Orlando W. Norcross died in 1920 at the age of 80. (Norcross Brothers Company)

• Company Dissolution: The company dissolved in 1924, but its Canadian branch continued as Anglin-Norcross until 1967. (Norcross Brothers Company)

George A. Fuller Company

• Fuller's Background: George A. Fuller (1851-1900) trained as an architect, working in his uncle's office and later at the Boston architectural firm of Peabody & Stearns. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Exposure to Norcross Brothers: Fuller was exposed to Norcross Brothers through his uncle's office and later at Peabody & Stearns, where Norcross Brothers built several of the firm's projects. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Fireproof Building Experience: Fuller gained experience working on tall, iron-framed, fireproof buildings at Peabody & Stearns. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Relocation to Chicago: Fuller moved to Chicago around 1881 and began working as a contractor. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Chicago's Construction Boom: Chicago was on the verge of a boom in commercial construction in 1880, making it an attractive location for builders. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Fireproof Construction Expertise: Fuller's experience with fireproof buildings positioned him well to meet the growing demand for such structures in Chicago. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Establishment of George A. Fuller Co.: Fuller established the George A. Fuller Co. in 1882 with a capital of $50,000. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Cost-Plus Contract: Fuller's early projects, like the Chicago Opera House Block and the Rookery Building, saw the introduction of the cost-plus contract. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Cost-Plus Contract vs. Lump-Sum Contract: The cost-plus contract differed from the lump-sum contract, where the contractor agreed to a fixed price. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Cost-Plus Contract Details: In a cost-plus contract, the general contractor received a fee for managing the work, while the owner paid the actual construction costs. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Cost-Plus Contract Advantages: The cost-plus contract offered advantages for owners and architects, allowing construction to begin before all drawings were complete and enabling more collaborative work between architects and builders. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Cost-Plus Contract Disadvantages: Loosely drawn cost-plus contracts without a guaranteed maximum price could encourage builders to overspend. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Fuller's Collaboration with Architects: Fuller collaborated with architects in the design process and helped develop new construction solutions. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Innovation in Construction: Fuller was the first builder to use a tar-paper roof over a building site to allow foundation work to proceed in bad weather. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Fuller's Influence in Chicago: Fuller's firm built many of Chicago's pioneer skyscrapers, including the Tacoma Building, which was a landmark in the evolution of skeleton frame construction. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Expansion Beyond Chicago: Fuller expanded his operations to the East Coast in the late 1890s, working on projects like the Equitable Building in Atlanta and the D.S. Morgan Building in Buffalo. (George A. Fuller Company)

• New York City Market: Fuller entered the New York City building market in 1896, working with out-of-town architects and investors on projects like the Coe Estate Building and the Broadway-Chambers Building. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Skyscraper Specialization: Fuller's firm became established as a specialist in erecting skyscrapers. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Speed Obsession: Speed became an obsession at the turn of the century, with contractors competing to set construction records. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Fuller's Death: Fuller died in 1900 at the age of 49. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Fuller Co.'s Continued Success: The George A. Fuller Co. continued to be one of the nation's largest builders in the 20th century, constructing prominent structures like the Fuller Building, Lincoln Memorial, and the United Nations Secretariat Building. (George A. Fuller Company)

• Company Closure: The company closed in 1994. (George A. Fuller Company)

Comparison of Norcross Brothers and George A. Fuller Company

Conclusion

• Specialization in the Building Industry: The emergence of the general contractor was a manifestation of the trend toward specialization in the U.S. building industry. (Conclusion)

• Norcross Brothers and Fuller Company's Legacy: Norcross Brothers and Fuller Company were two of the largest general contractors in the United States around 1900, renowned for the quality of their work. (Conclusion)

Footnotes

1. An exception was the contracts for large buildings erected by the federal government, such as those awarded by the U.S. Treasury Department in the 1850s. But this was an unusual case, and the Treasury Department’s venture into whole contracts in the antebellum period did not jumpstart the general contracting business in the United States. (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

2. Readex, America's Historical Newspapers, 1690–1922including Early American Newspapers Series 1– 3; accessed December 2007. Search done on the years 1823–89for “building contractor” and 1823–1860for “contract for building.” Whether private contracts were less likely to be reported than government contracts and this is the reason for the preponderance of government “contracts” is unknown. Examples of the few references to private contracts during this period include a contract for building an “extensive block of stores” (reprinted in Hudson River Chronicle, 17July 1838) and three churches in Maryland (Baltimore Sun, 11March 1843, 22 April 1847, 14July 1857). (The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America)

Construction Projects and Players

What is a Construction Project?

Description: This section defines what constitutes a construction project and differentiates it from ongoing tasks. It also highlights the common characteristics of projects across various fields.

Key Points:

• Defined Goal or Objective: Projects have a specific outcome called a deliverable that needs to be accomplished. (p. 28)

  • Examples: Building a house, renovating a bathroom, installing an irrigation system.

• Specific Task: Projects represent a unique task that is not routinely performed. (p. 28)

  • Example: Building a house is a project, but running a construction company is not.

• Series of Smaller Projects: Projects are often composed of smaller, targeted tasks or activities that are also projects. (p. 28)

  • Example: Roofing and painting the interior are smaller projects within the larger project of building a house.

• Defined Time Frame: Projects have a specific beginning and end, with a defined schedule. (p. 28)

  • Projects can be completed quickly or take years, like a power station.

• Resource Utilization: Projects require resources such as labor, money, and equipment. (p. 28)

  • These resources can be tracked and measured on a budget.

Construction Project Management

Description: This section introduces the concept of construction project management and its importance in coordinating and controlling construction projects.

Key Points:

• Construction Project Management: The process of coordinating, monitoring, evaluating, and controlling a construction project. (p. 27)

• Importance: Effective management is crucial for ensuring projects are completed on time, within budget, and to the required standards.

Players in Construction Projects

Description: This section introduces the key players involved in construction projects, outlining their roles and responsibilities.

Key Points:

• Owner: The individual or entity initiating and financing the project. (p. 39)

  • Sets goals, provides the site, and hires the designer and contractor.

• Designer: Typically an architect, responsible for designing the facility, verifying regulatory requirements, creating contract documents, and administering the contract between the owner and contractor. (p. 39)

  • May hire consulting engineers (civil, structural, electrical, mechanical) and other consultants.

• General Contractor (GC): Responsible for the physical completion of the project. (p. 39)

  • Coordinates and manages the work, monitors progress, and ensures work is completed as intended.

  • Hires and pays subcontractors.

• Subcontractors: Specialty contractors hired by the GC to perform specific portions of the project. (p. 39)

  • Examples: Excavation, roofing, electrical systems.

• Superintendent: On-site full-time, responsible for coordinating production work and daily activities. (p. 38)

  • Coordinates and manages work, monitors progress, and implements management strategies.

  • Typically a highly skilled trade worker.

• Foreman: Directly supervises the contractor's workers. (p. 38)

  • Lays out work, verifies tools and equipment, ensures work conforms to contract requirements, and prepares daily time sheets.

• Assistants: Field engineers, project engineers, or assistant superintendents responsible for documentation and communication. (p. 38)

  • Prepare field questions, maintain logs, and review invoices.

• Value Engineer: Identifies unnecessary costs in design and construction that can be reduced or eliminated without impacting building performance. (p. 38)

• Estimator: Determines actual costs of the project. (p. 38)

• Construction Manager (CM): Hired by the owner early in the process to act as the owner's representative during design and construction. (p. 38)

  • Provides budget and constructability reviews, represents the owner during bidding, and develops the construction team.

  • May or may not act as the general contractor.

Legal Relationships in Construction Projects

Description: This section explains the legal relationships between the various players in a construction project, highlighting the contractual agreements involved.

Key Points:

• Contractual Relationships: The owner typically has separate contracts with the designer and the general contractor. (p. 39)

  • The designer and contractor may hire consultants.

  • The general contractor hires and pays subcontractors.

• Prime Contractors: Contractors who have contracts directly with the owner. (p. 40)

• Subcontractors: Contractors hired by other contractors. (p. 40)

  • Specialty contractors are often subcontractors, but they can also be prime contractors if they have contracts directly with the owner.

Licensing Requirements for Contractors

Description: This section discusses the licensing requirements for general and specialty contractors, emphasizing the importance of compliance with state and local regulations.

Key Points:

• Purpose of Licensing: To protect public health, safety, and welfare. (p. 37)

• Requirements: Vary by state and may include written examinations, experience, age, and bonding. (p. 37)

• Bonding: An agreement with a surety that guarantees the surety will cover the contractor's obligations. (p. 37)

• Benefits of Bonding: Protects consumers from defective construction and employees from unpaid wages. (p. 37)

• Consequences of Unlicensed Work: Financial or disciplinary action. (p. 37)

• Project Type and Value: Determine licensing requirements. (p. 37)

  • Commercial projects often have different requirements than residential projects.

• Specialty Licenses: Many states differentiate between general building contractors and specialty contractors. (p. 37)

  • California has over 40 specialty classifications.

• Importance of Education: Contractors should be aware of local and state licensing requirements. (p. 37)

Diagram of Construction Project Players

Table of Construction Project Players and Responsibilities

Building Construction: Players and Processes

Testing and Commissioning

Description: This section explores the importance of testing and commissioning in ensuring building performance and quality.

• Testing: Independent agencies conduct testing to verify building materials and systems meet design specifications. This can involve calculations, analysis, or physical tests during manufacturing or on-site.

  • Examples: Steel strength tests, slump tests for concrete mix, flame spread criteria for materials.

  • ASTM International: A leading organization that sets performance standards for various products and materials.

• Commissioning: A quality assurance program designed to ensure building systems function as intended.

  • Benefits: Energy and cost savings, reduced equipment malfunctions, increased occupant satisfaction.

  • Scope: Applies to both new construction and existing buildings.

• Commissioning Agent: A professional hired by the owner during the design phase to oversee the commissioning process.

  • Responsibilities:

    • Develop performance goals and benchmarks with the owner and designer.

    • Review drawings and specifications to ensure compliance with goals.

    • Monitor construction to ensure proper techniques are used.

    • Assist in developing operation and maintenance strategies.

  • Focus: Maximizing design intent, maintainability, and future performance.

• Commissioning Requirements: While not always mandatory, commissioning is becoming increasingly common.

  • Examples: California and New York energy codes, LEED certification programs.

Construction Project Players

Description: This section introduces the key players involved in a construction project and their roles.

• Owner: The party responsible for funding and ultimately owning the project.

  • Types: Private owners (individuals, organizations, corporations) and public owners (government entities).

• Designer: A licensed professional (architect or engineer) responsible for planning, design, and construction administration.

  • Architects: Typically design buildings.

  • Engineers: Design infrastructure and complex commercial/industrial projects.

• General Contractor (GC): Hired by the owner to coordinate and oversee the entire construction project.

  • Responsibilities: Hiring subcontractors, managing suppliers, ensuring project completion within budget and schedule.

• Subcontractor: A specialty contractor hired by the GC to perform specific tasks.

  • Types: First-tier subcontractors (directly hired by the GC), second-tier subcontractors (hired by first-tier subcontractors), and so on.

• Construction Manager (CM): An owner's representative hired early in the planning/design phase to assist with cost and constructability reviews.

  • Responsibilities: Coordinating contractor hiring, administering construction contracts.

  • Transition: May transition to the role of GC or hire a separate GC at the start of construction.

• Field Inspector: An official who inspects ongoing construction to ensure compliance with approved drawings and specifications.

• Superintendent: The contractor's representative responsible for the day-to-day production of the project.

• Foreman: Directly supervises the contractor's workers on-site.

• Estimator: Calculates the probable cost of a project or specific components.

• Manufacturer: Produces finished goods sold to distributors, retailers, or consumers.

• Supplier (Vendor): Provides products and services to the contractor.

• User: The party who occupies and uses the completed facility.

  • Note: The user may or may not be the owner and can be transient (e.g., the public using a downtown plaza).

Construction Projects and Players

Introduction

• Construction is a dynamic process: The constant change from project to project is a defining characteristic of construction. (Page 3)

• Collaboration is key: Large projects involve numerous individuals and teams with diverse roles and responsibilities. (Page 3)

• Teamwork is essential: The construction process involves three primary teams: the owner's team, the designer's team, and the contractor's team. (Page 3)

• Roles and responsibilities: Each team has distinct responsibilities and obligations that contribute to the successful completion of a project. (Page 3)

• Flexibility and adaptation: While roles are generally established, contractual relationships and owner preferences can lead to adjustments and shifts in responsibilities. (Page 3)

• The ultimate goal: The construction process aims to produce a facility that meets the owner's needs and wishes within a regulatory framework. (Page 3)

The Owner's Team

• The driving force: The owner initiates the project concept, sets time and budget constraints, provides the site, determines financing, and hires key personnel. (Page 3)

• Diverse ownership: Owners can be individuals, organizations, corporations, businesses, or public agencies like school districts and transportation departments. (Page 3)

• Public vs. Private Owners:

  • Public Owners: Include local, state, and federal governments, educational institutions, public hospitals, and other public entities. (Page 3)

  • Public Funding: Public projects are financed with public funds, typically through bonds or general tax revenues. (Page 3)

  • Public Oversight: Public projects are subject to layers of oversight, including public bidding and heightened regulatory requirements like environmental standards. (Page 3)

  • Examples: A new library at a community college, a new highway, sewer and water line replacements, and local parks. (Page 3)

  • Private Owners: Include individuals, land developers, organizations, institutions, companies, and businesses. (Page 3)

  • Private Funding: Private projects are financed by the owners themselves or through lending institutions like banks. (Page 3)

  • Less Regulation: Private owners have more flexibility with fewer regulations governing their projects. (Page 3)

  • Hiring Freedom: Private owners have more freedom in hiring contractors, subject to anti-discrimination laws. (Page 3)

• The Client: Both public and private owners are typically referred to as the "client" by the design and construction teams. (Page 3)

• Contractual Relationships: Owners typically have separate contracts with the designer and the general contractor. (Page 3)

• Team Structure: On larger projects, the owner's team may include:

  • Project Manager/Business Manager: Coordinates and manages the owner's interests. (Page 3)

  • Construction Contract Administrator: Verifies contractor performance, administers the construction contract, and verifies payment requests. (Page 3)

  • Attorneys: Assist in legal document preparation. (Page 3)

  • Accountants: Track money dispersal and issue checks. (Page 3)

  • Insurance Agents: Provide coverage advice and policies. (Page 3)

  • Financiers: Help fund the project, securing loans for site acquisition, designer and contractor payments, and unexpected situations. (Page 3)

• Other Potential Team Members: End users, real estate agents, and marketing personnel. (Page 3)

The Designer's Team

• Planning and Design Experts: Designers provide planning, design, and construction administration services. (Page 3)

• A/E: The designer is sometimes referred to as the A/E, acknowledging that both architects and engineers can serve as the primary designer. (Page 3)

• Architect vs. Engineer: Architects typically design buildings, while engineers design infrastructure and complex commercial and industrial projects like roads and power plants. (Page 3)

• Licensed Professionals: Both architects and engineers are licensed professionals whose accreditation is typically administered through the state. (Page 3)

• Designer's Responsibilities:

  • Hired by the Owner: The designer is hired by and responsible to the owner. (Page 3)

  • Beyond Drawing: The designer's role extends beyond drawing, involving creating solutions that meet the owner's goals within budget, schedule, and regulatory constraints. (Page 3)

  • Construction Drawings: The architect develops construction drawings, which are discussed in Chapter 7. (Page 3)

  • Owner's Representative: The architect acts as the owner's representative during construction. (Page 3)

  • Construction Contract Administration: The architect administers the owner's contract with the general contractor, approving payment requests, monitoring contractor performance, reviewing submittals and substitution requests, and addressing questions regarding drawings and specifications. (Page 3)

• Team Structure:

  • Principal-in-Charge: Assumes overall project responsibility, making major decisions and addressing problems. (Page 3)

  • Project Architect: Generates a design that meets the owner's vision and budget, develops bidding and construction documents, and serves as the primary contact for the owner. (Page 3)

  • Project Manager (PM): Ensures project progress, visits the site regularly, and resolves questions with the contractor. (Page 3)

  • Job Captain: Organizes drawings and coordinates with engineers and other consultants. (Page 3)

• Consultants:

  • Engineers: Provide design, drawings, and specifications for specific technical aspects of the project, including structural, civil, electrical, mechanical, traffic, value, acoustic, lighting, energy, and more. (Page 3)

  • Estimators: Develop cost projections at various design stages. (Page 3)

  • Specification Writers: Assist in developing material and workmanship requirements for the project. (Page 3)

  • Suppliers and Product Representatives: Assist in selecting specific products, materials, and systems. (Page 3)

  • Other Consultants: Code and regulations consultants, geotechnical and soil investigators, landscape designers, IT experts, audio/visual consultants, and others. (Page 3)

The Contractor's Team

• Construction Professionals: Contractors, also known as constructors or builders, are individuals or firms who agree to construct a project according to contract documents. (Page 3)

• General Contractor (GC): On most projects, a general contractor is hired by the owner to coordinate and oversee the physical work required to complete the project. (Page 3)

• Specialty Trade Contractors: General contractors often hire specialty contractors, who are experts in specific areas of construction like electrical, plumbing, concrete, framing, and more. (Page 3)

• Self-Performing vs. Subcontracting:

  • Self-Performing: General contractors may use their own crews to perform the work, which is more common on smaller projects. (Page 3)

  • Subcontracting: On larger projects, general contractors typically hire specialty contractors to perform a significant portion of the work. (Page 3)

• Efficiency of Specialty Contractors: Specialty contractors are often more efficient due to their focused expertise, making subcontracting a common practice. (Page 3)

The Changing Role of the Architect in the United States Construction Industry, 1870-1913

Introduction

• Context: This paper explores the evolution of the architect's role in the US construction industry between 1870 and 1913, focusing on the impact of the Chicago Fire of 1871 and the rise of skyscrapers.

• Key Players: The paper highlights the contributions of architects like Richard Upjohn, Cass Gilbert, and engineers like Gunvald Aus and C.T. Purdy.

• Shifting Practices: The paper examines the transition from the traditional "master builder" model to a more collaborative approach involving specialized engineers and general contractors.

• Impact: This shift led to the development of modern architectural engineering and the procurement practices we see today.

From Master Builder to Project Manager

• Traditional Approach: During the 19th century, architects often acted as "master builders," overseeing all aspects of design and construction.

• Example: Richard Upjohn and Trinity Church (1839-1846)

  • Upjohn designed and supervised the construction of Trinity Church in New York City.

  • He managed a small team of draftsmen, generated estimates and contracts, directed builders, and oversaw all aspects of the project.

  • Trinity Church, with its 281-foot spire, was the tallest structure in New York City until 1890.

• Shifting Landscape: The rise of skyscrapers and complex building projects in the late 19th and early 20th centuries demanded a more specialized approach.

The Rise of Collaboration: The Woolworth Building (1910-1913)

• The Woolworth Building: Completed in 1913, the Woolworth Building was a landmark in New York City, standing at 792 feet tall.

• Collaborative Approach: The construction of the Woolworth Building involved a collaboration between the architect, structural engineer, and building contractor.

• Cass Gilbert (Architect): Gilbert's office, with a staff of 20-25 individuals, produced hundreds of drawings, coordinating with the contractor's accelerated schedule.

• Thompson-Starrett (General Contractor): Founded in 1899, Thompson-Starrett was a pioneer in the "modern building organization" model, providing comprehensive coordination and supervision of various trades under a single contract system.

• Gunvald Aus (Structural Engineer): Aus's team of 30 engineers and draftsmen produced the structural steel shop drawings, which were then sent to the fabricator, the American Bridge Company.

• Specialized Subcontractors: The project also involved specialized subcontractors for terra cotta, sanitary, heating, and electrical systems.

• Key Takeaway: The Woolworth Building exemplifies the shift towards a collaborative approach, with architects working closely with engineers and general contractors to manage complex projects.

The Chicago Model: Innovation and Specialization

• Chicago's Building Boom: Following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, speculative building developers sought to maximize profits by demanding architects increase rentable space in their buildings.

• Chicago Architects' Response: Chicago architects embraced new technologies and working practices, leaving behind the Beaux Arts tradition and incorporating specialist engineers to design structural steel skeletons and modern building services.

• Collaboration with General Contractors: Chicago architects also began working with general contractors to manage the growing number of specialist subcontractors and ensure timely project delivery.

• Impact: Chicago's innovative approach to building design and construction influenced architects across the country, including Cass Gilbert.

The Beaux Arts Tradition in New York

• Beaux Arts Influence: New York architects in the late 19th century were heavily influenced by the Beaux Arts tradition, emphasizing artistic expression and urban enhancement.

• Key Figures: Richard Morris Hunt, Henry Van Brunt, George B. Post, Frank Furness, H.H. Richardson, Charles McKim, Sanford White, John Merven Carrère, and Thomas Hastings all trained in or were influenced by the Beaux Arts tradition.

• Emphasis on Aesthetics: Beaux Arts architects focused on designing the appearance and layout of buildings, often incorporating classical elements and historical motifs.

• Corporate Identity: As corporations grew, they sought to establish a visual presence in the city through grand and extravagant buildings that reflected their power and prestige.

Cass Gilbert: Bridging the Gap

• Gilbert's Approach: Cass Gilbert, influenced by the Chicago model, embraced the use of engineers in structural design, even while maintaining a strong Beaux Arts aesthetic.

• Broadway Chambers Building (1900): Gilbert's first New York commission, the Broadway Chambers Building, showcased his collaborative approach, working with engineer C.T. Purdy and general contractor George A. Fuller.

• Fuller's Influence: Gilbert was impressed by Fuller's organizational skills and the speed with which the Broadway Chambers Building was constructed.

• International Recognition: The Broadway Chambers Building was featured at the 1900 International Universal Exposition in Paris, showcasing American building technology to the world.

The European Perspective

• Columbian Exposition (1893): The Columbian Exposition in Chicago introduced European visitors to American architecture, but the "White City" buildings, while grand, did not fully represent the advancements in steel construction.

• Chicago's "Loop": European critics recognized the innovative steel-framed buildings of Chicago's Loop as the future of architecture, but they were hesitant to embrace a style so devoid of historical and aesthetic elements.

• European Hierarchy: In Europe, structural steel construction was primarily the domain of engineers, while architects focused on monumental civic architecture.

• The Role of Decoration: European architects often concealed or covered steel structures with decorative elements, emphasizing aesthetics over functionality.

The Growing Debate: Architect vs. Engineer

• Gilbert's Advocacy: Cass Gilbert was a strong advocate for a closer relationship between architects and engineers.

• The American Architect (1904): An article by structural engineer R.P. Bolton criticized New York architects for their reluctance to utilize engineers in structural and mechanical design, arguing that many architects relied on contractors and bidders for technical information.

• C.T. Purdy's Perspective (1905): Purdy, a prominent engineer, argued that the development of rolled steel beams and the increasing complexity of building systems required the expertise of trained engineers.

• Purdy's Challenge: Purdy faced resistance in New York City, where architects often relied on iron manufacturers for steel design.

• Call for Collaboration: Both Bolton and Purdy advocated for a collaborative approach, with engineers playing a supporting role to the architect's leading role in building design.

Key Terms and Concepts

Diagrams

This diagram illustrates the shift from the traditional "master builder" model to a more collaborative approach involving architects, engineers, and general contractors.

Conclusion

The changing role of the architect in the US construction industry between 1870 and 1913 was driven by technological advancements, the rise of skyscrapers, and the increasing complexity of building projects. This shift led to a more collaborative approach, with architects working closely with engineers and general contractors to manage complex projects and ensure the successful delivery of modern buildings. This evolution laid the foundation for the modern architectural engineering and procurement practices we see today.

The Changing Role of the Architect in the United States Construction Industry, 1870-1913

Introduction

• This period saw a significant shift in the role of architects due to the rise of new urban markets, industrialization, and the increasing complexity of buildings. (Conclusion)

• The demand for more rentable space, safety, comfort, and timely completion challenged traditional architectural design and practice. (Conclusion)

The Rise of Specialization and Management

• Specialization: Large architectural offices transitioned from generalists to specialists, employing more experts to maintain the characteristics of traditional practice. (Conclusion)

• Collaboration: Collaboration between specialists was managed by individuals responsible for coordinating departments and implementing executive decisions. (Conclusion)

• Chicago's Influence: The "commercial style" and the development of iron and steel-skeleton buildings in Chicago in the 1870s required collaboration between architects, engineers, and contractors. (Conclusion)

• Emphasis on Efficiency: Chicago architects prioritized practicality and efficiency, embracing new construction methods and technical knowledge from engineers. (Conclusion)

• Beaux Arts Architects: New York's Beaux Arts architects attempted to maintain the traditional atelier atmosphere, delegating practical matters to others. (Conclusion)

• Cass Gilbert's Innovation: Cass Gilbert, ahead of his time, utilized general contractors and independent structural engineers for his Woolworth Building (1910-13), one of the first major New York skyscrapers. (Conclusion)

• Hierarchical Management: Gilbert adopted a hierarchical management structure, a practice that would soon be adopted by other prominent architects in New York. (Conclusion)

The Impact of Professional Journals

• Dissemination of Information: Professional journals of the period provided news about building innovations, disagreements, and discussions about the architect's role in relation to other construction professionals. (Conclusion)

• Keeping Architects Informed: Journal articles helped architects understand their evolving role by providing information on new technologies, legal obligations, and experienced advice from other disciplines. (Conclusion)

The Architect's New Role

• Technical Expertise: The increasing complexity of buildings demanded architects to possess technical knowledge from engineering specialists. (Conclusion)

• Specialized Labor: The specialization of construction labor required architects to provide additional drawings for various building systems. (Conclusion)

• Project Management: Owners' demands for faster construction and efficient buildings forced architects to coordinate labor, provide drawings at specific times, and standardize construction material specifications. (Conclusion)

• Balancing Aesthetics and Functionality: The demand for aesthetically pleasing buildings was increasingly accompanied by a demand for functional and cost-effective office buildings. (Conclusion)

• Modern Management Methods: The design and construction of modern buildings required modern management methods to organize numerous individuals working towards a common goal. (Conclusion)

• Shift in Ideal: The artistic ideal of the nineteenth century was replaced by the ideal of loyalty to the firm. (Conclusion)

The Evolution of the Architectural Office

• Expansion and Stratification: The architectural office expanded and became more stratified, incorporating specialists and collaborating with other construction professionals. (Conclusion)

• Collaboration with Other Professionals: The architect's role evolved to include collaboration with engineers, general contractors, and other specialists. (Conclusion)

Key Figures and Their Contributions

• Richard Upjohn: His office, known as the "School of Upjohn," played a significant role in shaping architectural practice. (References: 1)

• Dankmar Adler: A prominent architect in Chicago, he advocated for the role of the general contractor and emphasized the importance of engineering supervision in building operations. (References: 51, 60)

• Cass Gilbert: A pioneer in utilizing general contractors and independent structural engineers for skyscraper projects. (Conclusion)

• George B. Post: His architectural office, established in 1868, exemplified the process of design and the evolving structure of the American architectural office. (References: 75)

Key Concepts

• Commercial Style: A style of architecture that emerged in Chicago in the 1870s, characterized by its practicality and efficiency. (Conclusion)

• Iron and Steel-Skeleton Building: A new type of building construction that allowed for taller and more complex structures. (Conclusion)

• Atelier Atmosphere: A traditional approach to architectural practice, emphasizing collaboration and mentorship within a studio setting. (Conclusion)

• Hierarchical Management: A management structure characterized by a clear chain of command and defined roles. (Conclusion)

• General Contractor: A construction professional responsible for overseeing all aspects of a building project. (Conclusion)

• Independent Structural Engineer: A specialist responsible for designing the structural elements of a building. (Conclusion)

Key Developments

• New Building Types: The emergence of new building types, such as skyscrapers, demanded new approaches to design and construction. (Conclusion)

• Changes in Design and Construction Methods: The adoption of new technologies, such as iron and steel, led to significant changes in design and construction methods. (Conclusion)

• Entry of Engineers and General Contractors: The increasing complexity of buildings led to the involvement of engineers and general contractors in the construction process. (Conclusion)

Key Challenges

• Balancing Tradition and Innovation: Architects faced the challenge of balancing traditional architectural principles with the demands of new technologies and construction methods. (Conclusion)

• Managing Complexity: The increasing complexity of buildings required architects to develop new management methods to coordinate diverse teams and specialists. (Conclusion)

Key Trends

• Specialization: The architectural profession became increasingly specialized, with architects focusing on specific areas of expertise. (Conclusion)

• Collaboration: Collaboration between architects and other construction professionals became essential for successful building projects. (Conclusion)

• Efficiency: The emphasis on efficiency and cost-effectiveness influenced architectural design and construction practices. (Conclusion)

Table: Key Developments and Their Impact on the Architect's Role

Conclusion

The changing role of the architect in the United States construction industry between 1870 and 1913 was a period of significant transformation. The rise of new urban markets, industrialization, and the increasing complexity of buildings forced architects to adapt their practices, embrace new technologies, and collaborate with other construction professionals. This period marked a shift from the traditional atelier atmosphere to a more specialized and managed approach to architectural practice.

The Changing Role of the Architect in the United States Construction Industry, 1870-1913

The Rise of Professionalization

Description: This section explores the development of professionalization in the fields of architecture and engineering in the United States during the late 19th century.

• Influence of European Schools: American engineering programs were modeled after the École Centrale, a French polytechnic school focused on industrial applications. (Page 3)

• Morrill Act of 1862: This act established federal grants for states to create public universities offering courses in agriculture and engineering. (Page 3)

• Apprenticeship System Decline: By 1900, the university system for training engineers had largely replaced the traditional apprenticeship system. (Page 3)

• École des Beaux Arts Influence: The first school of architecture in the United States, established at MIT in 1865, was modeled after the atelier system of the École des Beaux Arts. (Page 3)

• Illinois School of Architecture: Founded in 1867, this school became the first in the country to license professional architects in 1897. (Page 3)

• Professional Associations: Architects and engineers formed associations to differentiate themselves and establish professional standards. (Page 3)

• American Institute of Architects (AIA): Founded in 1857 under the leadership of Richard Upjohn, the AIA aimed to elevate the profession and maintain a detached image from the commercial world. (Page 3, Page 126)

• American Society of Civil Engineers: Established in 1852, this organization contributed to professionalization by setting licensure requirements and a code of ethics. (Page 3)

• Professional Journals: Architectural journals emerged in the late 19th century, serving as a platform for exchanging ideas about building design, construction, and legal aspects of the profession. (Page 3)

• Dissemination of Knowledge: Journals provided architects with information on building technology, specifications, and legal matters, contributing to the advancement of the field. (Page 3)

• "Taste" and Expertise: Architects sought to professionalize their ranks by emphasizing their expertise in visual "taste" and design, based on specialized training. (Page 3)

• Cultural Capital: Architects possessed the cultural capital desired by industrialists and corporate moguls, who sought to display their wealth and power through their buildings. (Page 3)

• Organizational Structure: Larger architectural offices evolved into organizations with a clear division of responsibility, often led by a "businessman" responsible for managing daily operations and client relations. (Page 3)

The Rise of Corporate Business

Description: This section examines the dramatic shift in business practices in the United States during the second half of the 19th century, marked by the rise of corporations and the emergence of a new managerial class.

• Separation of Functions: Companies began to separate production and administrative functions, leading to a more specialized division of labor. (Page 4)

• Corporations: Corporations emerged as a new type of business organization, replacing traditional partnerships and sole proprietorships. (Page 4)

• Unskilled Labor: Workers transitioned from versatile employees to specialized, unskilled laborers performing repetitive tasks within a bureaucratic structure. (Page 4)

• Factors Driving Corporate Growth: Westward expansion, railroad networks, the development of a national urban market, the internal combustion engine, electrical power, and the application of science in business research and development all contributed to the growth of corporate business. (Page 4)

• Managerial Skills: Corporations employed managers trained in entrepreneurial skills rather than manufacturing processes, relying on unskilled labor to operate machinery. (Page 4)

• Corporate Office Dominance: By 1890, the corporate office, with its emphasis on speed, precision, and efficiency, became the dominant model in American business. (Page 4)

• Efficient Workspaces: Factories and offices were redesigned to optimize the flow of materials and information, reflecting the application of specialized knowledge in analyzing manufacturing processes. (Page 4)

• Specialized Education: The demand for engineers and business professionals led to the growth of specialized schools to provide the necessary knowledge for corporate success. (Page 4)

Complexity of Buildings and Construction

Description: This section explores the technological advancements and changes in building design and construction that occurred in the late 19th century, leading to more complex and sophisticated buildings.

• Technological Innovations: Artificial lighting, heating, ventilation, plumbing, and sewerage systems became standard features in modern buildings. (Page 4)

• Business-Facilitating Systems: Pneumatic tubes, mail chutes, electric signaling, and the telephone were incorporated into buildings to enhance business operations. (Page 4)

• Hierarchical Office Structures: The rise of corporate hierarchies led to the need for differentiated spaces within office buildings, including specialized rooms and efficient workspaces. (Page 4)

• Maximizing Rental Revenue: Corporate clients increasingly demanded buildings that maximized rental revenue, driving the need for faster construction and more efficient design. (Page 4)

• Influence of Engineers and Contractors: The growing complexity of buildings led to increased influence of engineers and general contractors, who played key roles in design and construction. (Page 4)

• Structural Engineering: The structural engineering profession, which emerged in the 1880s, specialized in designing and advancing the technology of foundations and steel frames for tall buildings. (Page 4)

• Standardized Materials: Material suppliers responded to the increased demand for their products by standardizing their processes and finished products, leading to the use of pre-fabricated components in building construction. (Page 4)

• Shop Drawings: Architects began to pre-specify materials and designs using shop drawings, ensuring that materials arrived on-site ready for assembly. (Page 4)

• Specialized Labor Force: The complexity of buildings and the need for detailed drawings required a larger and more specialized construction workforce. (Page 4)

• Financing and Investment: Building projects were increasingly financed by investors seeking returns through rental income, demanding efficient and rapid construction methods. (Page 4)

• General Contractors: General contracting companies emerged, offering to construct buildings rapidly and efficiently for a fixed price and duration, appealing to speculative office owners. (Page 4)

Regional Differences in Architectural Practice

Description: This section examines the contrasting approaches to architectural practice in Chicago and New York during the late 19th century, highlighting the influence of engineering innovation and business demands versus the traditional emphasis on beauty and Classicism.

• Chicago's Practical Approach: Chicago architects responded to the practical demands of their clients and the intensifying commercial needs of the city, embracing new technologies and efficient construction methods. (Page 5)

• East Coast Disdain: East Coast architects criticized Chicago architects for their "business" approach to architecture, viewing it as a departure from the traditional emphasis on beauty and Classicism. (Page 5)

• AIA's Ethos: The AIA's professional ethos emphasized detachment from commercial influences to maintain an elevated image for the profession. (Page 5)

• European Restrictions: Similar protocols in Europe prevented architects from becoming involved in the practical aspects of design and construction, leaving those tasks to engineers. (Page 5)

• Chicago's Architectural Hallmarks: Advanced building technology and the practical uses of buildings were hallmarks of Chicago architecture. (Page 5)

• The Skyscraper: The development of the tall commercial building, or "skyscraper," which made Chicago architects famous, was driven by the needs of speculative developers seeking commercial success. (Page 5)

• Structural Experimentation: Chicago architects frequently experimented with structural systems, pushing the boundaries of building codes to achieve faster construction and maximize rentable space. (Page 5)

• Corporate Influence: Chicago architects embraced the corporate organizational methods and means of their big business clients, reflecting the city's commercial dynamism. (Page 5)

• "Chicago Architecture": The use of the iron skeleton with thinly clad outer walls became known as "Chicago Architecture," distinct from the more traditional American architectural styles. (Page 5)

• Beaux Arts Influence in New York: New York's most prominent architects were trained at the École des Beaux Arts or in offices modeled after its ateliers. (Page 5)

• Artistic Ideal: Beaux Arts architects viewed themselves as artists, believing that the architect's role was to represent culture's nobler sentiments and link the grandeur of the past to contemporary buildings. (Page 5)

• New York's Architectural Focus: New York architects did not share Chicago's enthusiasm for commercial skyscrapers, preferring to design institutional and public buildings. (Page 5)

Chicago: A City of Growth and Innovation

Description: This section focuses on the rapid growth and development of Chicago, particularly after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, and the emergence of the Chicago School of Architecture, which revolutionized building design and construction.

• Chicago's Growth: Founded in 1833, Chicago quickly became a commercial hub, experiencing a tenfold population increase between 1850 and 1870. (Page 5)

• The Great Chicago Fire: The fire of 1871 destroyed a significant portion of the city, including its central business district, but also spurred a period of rapid modernization and rebuilding. (Page 5)

• Attracting Architects: Chicago's post-fire growth attracted architects from Europe and the East Coast, contributing to the city's architectural renaissance. (Page 5)

• William LeBaron Jenney: Jenney, an engineer with a degree from Lawrence Scientific School and a diploma from the École Centrale, arrived in Chicago in 1867. (Page 5)

• Dankmar Adler: Adler, a German-American architect who learned his craft through apprenticeships and served in the Union Army as an engineer, arrived in Chicago in 1861. (Page 5)

• The Chicago School of Architecture: Jenney, Adler, and other architects, including Burnham, Root, Holabird, Roche, and Sullivan, formed the Chicago School of Architecture, which revolutionized building design and construction. (Page 5)

• Form Follows Function: The Chicago School emphasized the principle of "form follows function," where building form was based on structural requirements and the practical demands of the building's use. (Page 5)

• Daniel Burnham: Burnham, trained on the job, worked in Jenney's office and later joined the firm of Carter, Drake, and Wight. He formed a partnership with John Wellborn Root in 1873. (Page 5)

• John Wellborn Root: Root, a graduate of New York University with a degree in civil engineering, joined Carter, Drake, and Wight in 1871. (Page 5)

• William Holabird: Holabird, an engineer educated at the United States Military Academy, worked in Jenney's office in 1875, where he met Martin Roche. (Page 5)

• Martin Roche: Roche trained in Jenney's office from 1872 until he formed a partnership with Holabird in 1881. (Page 5)

• Louis Sullivan: Sullivan, who studied architecture at MIT and the École des Beaux Arts, worked in Jenney's office and later joined the firm of Adler and Sullivan in 1880. (Page 5)

The Rise of the Skyscraper

Description: This section explores the factors that led to the development of the skyscraper in Chicago, including the need for office space, the rise of corporations, and the innovative use of new building materials and technologies.

• The Loop: The central business district of Chicago, known as the Loop, was approximately one mile square. (Page 6)

• Corporate Growth: After 1870, corporations grew in number and size, leading to a demand for office space within the Loop. (Page 6)

• Limited Land: The limited land parcels within the Loop led to skyrocketing property values. (Page 6)

• Corporate Relocation: When corporations relocated their headquarters to the Loop, ancillary businesses, lawyers, shop owners, and insurance firms also sought nearby locations, further increasing the demand for office space. (Page 6)

• Speculative Developers: Speculative developers responded to the demand for office space by building larger buildings than needed for their own offices, creating a market for smaller office rentals. (Page 6)

• The Portland Block: In 1872, Jenney was commissioned to design a speculative office block for Peter Brooks, using pressed brick, an inexpensive material not previously used in important structures. (Page 6)

• Commercial Style: Unornamented brick and sandstone buildings became known as "commercial style" during the early 1870s, reflecting the Chicago business community's focus on economy and practicality. (Page 6)

• The Leiter Building: Levi Leiter's commission for the Leiter Building in 1879 led Jenney to innovate by reducing ornamentation and devising a system of columns placed inside exterior masonry piers to carry floor loads, allowing the piers to be thinner. (Page 6)

• The Home Insurance Building: Jenney's design for the Home Insurance Building, completed in 1885, further advanced the use of iron and steel in building construction. (Page 6)

• Bessemer Process: The Bessemer process, developed by Carnegie steel mills in Pittsburgh, allowed for the mass production of steel, creating a new market for rolled steel sections. (Page 6)

• Steel Beams: Jenney incorporated Carnegie steel beams into the top three stories of the Home Insurance Building, marking a significant shift towards steel construction. (Page 6)

• Railway-Bridge Engineers: As railroad construction declined, railway-bridge engineers found new opportunities in Chicago, applying their expertise to the design of skeleton frame buildings. (Page 6)

• Steel Fabricators: Chicago architects, including Burnham, Sullivan, Holabird, and Roche, consulted with steel fabricators about the structural design of commercial buildings. (Page 6)

• Edward C. Shankland: Burnham hired Shankland, a former bridge engineer, to design the steel structures of his buildings after the collapse of the Midland Hotel in 1888. (Page 6)

• Chicago Building Codes: Chicago building codes favored steel construction over other materials, enabling architects to design high-rise buildings more economically. (Page 6)

The Architect's Role in the Construction Process

Description: This section examines the evolving relationship between architects, contractors, and engineers in the late 19th century, highlighting the increasing importance of technical expertise and collaboration.

• The Inland Architect and News Record: This national journal, published in Chicago, became a primary source for articles on the architect's business practice. (Page 7)

• Architect-Contractor Relationship: Articles in The Inland Architect began to address the relationship between architects and contractors, recognizing the growing importance of collaboration. (Page 7)

• Architect-Engineer Relationship: The journal also discussed the relationship between architects and structural engineers, emphasizing the need for technical expertise in building design. (Page 7)

• Corydon T. Purdy: Purdy, a former Carnegie bridge engineer who established a consulting practice in Chicago, provided structural engineering services to Holabird and Roche from 1892 to 1911. (Page 7)

• Technical Expertise: Purdy's lectures and articles emphasized the importance of consulting with engineers about technical aspects of building design, including structure, plumbing, heating, lighting, and ventilation. (Page 7)

• Steel Specifications: Purdy stressed the importance of explicit steel specifications and connection details, which could be verified by technically competent advisors. (Page 7)

• Architect's Supervision: Articles in The Inland Architect advised architects on their responsibilities in supervising construction and awarding contracts. (Page 7)

• Dankmar Adler's Criticism: Adler, in an article published in The Inland Architect in 1899, criticized the emergence of the general contractor, arguing that it could lead to higher costs and lower quality buildings. (Page 7)

• General Contractor's Role: Adler argued that the general contractor was eliminating the architect's responsibility to supervise construction, and that construction tradesmen were becoming employees rather than independent craftsmen. (Page 7)

• Architect's Responsibilities: Adler advised architects to familiarize themselves with the construction process to offer their clients the same services as a general contractor, such as delivering a building for a fixed cost within a prescribed time. (Page 7)

• George A. Fuller Company: This general contracting company, founded in Chicago in 1883, offered a more efficient and reliable service, as exemplified by their work on Burnham and Root's Rookery building. (Page 7)

History of the Design & Construction Professions

The Rise of the General Contractor in 19th Century America (Wermiel, 2008)

• General Contractor: A professional who manages and oversees all aspects of a construction project, from planning and budgeting to hiring subcontractors and ensuring quality control.

• 19th Century America: A period of rapid industrialization and urbanization, leading to a surge in construction projects.

• Key Factors:

  • Increased Complexity of Projects: As projects grew in size and complexity, the need for specialized expertise and coordination increased.

  • Emergence of Specialized Trades: The development of new materials and technologies led to the emergence of specialized trades, such as plumbing, electrical, and carpentry.

  • Growth of the Construction Industry: The demand for construction services fueled the growth of the industry, leading to the establishment of specialized contracting firms.

The Changing Role of the Architect in the United States Construction Industry, 1870-1913 (McBride, 2013)

• Shifting Role: The role of the architect evolved from solely designing buildings to also overseeing the construction process.

• Key Factors:

  • Increased Emphasis on Functionality: The focus shifted from purely aesthetic considerations to incorporating functionality and practicality in designs.

  • Growing Importance of Engineering: The increasing complexity of buildings and infrastructure required greater engineering expertise.

  • Development of Professional Standards: The establishment of professional organizations, such as the American Institute of Architects (AIA), helped to standardize architectural practices and elevate the profession.

Evolution of Construction Practices

• Trinity Church, NYC (1839-1846):

  • Architect: Richard Upjohn

  • Design & Supervision: Architects were responsible for both designing and overseeing the construction of buildings.

  • Team: Upjohn worked with a team of 3-4 draftsmen.

  • Spire Height: The church's spire reached a height of 281 feet.

Construction Practices in the Industrial Age

• Separation of Architecture, Engineering, and Construction:

  • Factors:

    • New Materials and Manufacturing: The introduction of new materials, such as steel and concrete, required specialized knowledge and expertise.

    • Improved Transportation: The development of railroads facilitated the transportation of materials and workers, enabling larger and more complex projects.

    • Growing Project Complexity: The increasing size and complexity of projects demanded specialized skills and knowledge.

  • Shifting Focus: The focus shifted from purely artistic considerations to technical knowledge and expertise.

  • Occupation vs. Profession: The construction industry transitioned from a collection of occupations to a more formalized profession.

  • Specialized Education: The need for specialized knowledge led to the development of educational programs in architecture, engineering, and construction management.

Evolution of Construction Practices in the Industrial Age (1850-1880s)

• Key Milestones:

  • 1852: American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) founded.

  • 1857: American Institute of Architects (AIA) founded.

  • 1865: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) offers the first architectural degree.

  • 1867: Francois Hennebique establishes a contracting firm in Europe, building over 7,000 structures.

  • 1868: Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) founded in the UK.

  • 1864: Norcross Brothers Company founded in the USA.

  • 1882/83: George A. Fuller Co. founded in the USA.

  • 1890: The "corporate America" era begins.

  • 1899: Thompson-Starrett founded in the USA, responsible for the construction of the Woolworth Building in NYC.

Auburn University

• Land-Grant College: In 1872, Auburn University became the first land-grant college in the South, initially named the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama.

• Name Change: In 1899, the name was changed to the Alabama Polytechnic Institute.

• Department of Architecture:

  • 1907: A curriculum in architecture was introduced within the Civil Engineering Department.

  • 1912: The Department of Architecture was established within the School of Engineering.

  • 1927: The School of Architecture and Applied Arts was formed.

  • 1942: A new program in Building Construction was added to the Architecture Department.

Associated General Contractors of America (AGC)

• Date Founded: 1918

• Trade Association: The AGC is a trade association representing the construction industry in the United States.

• Headquarters: Arlington, Virginia.

Associated Builders and Contractors (ABC)

• Date Founded: 1950

• Trade Association: The ABC represents the non-union construction industry in the United States.

• Membership: ABC has 69 chapters with over 22,000 commercial contractors and construction-related firms.

The Miller Act of 1935

• Impact: The Miller Act is credited with contributing to a clear separation between design and construction.

• Requirements: The law requires contractors on federal contracts (public works) exceeding $100,000 to post two bonds:

  • Performance Bond: Guarantees the completion of the project according to the contract specifications.

  • Payment Bond: Protects subcontractors and suppliers from non-payment by the contractor.

• Project Roles:

  • Owner: Hires the architect/engineer to design the building.

  • Owner: Hires the general contractor to build the building.

Design & Construction: The Post-WWII Age (1940s-1960s)

• WWII Impact:

  • National War Effort: Consumer industries were converted to support the war effort, leading to rationing at home.

  • The Draft: The draft led to a shortage of labor.

  • Railroad Use: Railroad use reached its peak during this period.

• Post-WWII Growth:

  • Pent-up Consumer Demand: The end of the war led to a surge in consumer demand for goods and services.

  • Construction Programs: Government programs, such as the Veteran's Administration (VA) financing and the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, stimulated construction activity.

  • Union Trades: Union trades reached their peak during this period.

Design & Construction in the Technological Age (1970s-2000s)

• Key Factors:

  • Arab Oil Embargo: The 1973 Arab oil embargo led to high inflation (15-18%), making time a valuable commodity.

  • OSHA & EPA: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) were established to regulate workplace safety and environmental protection.

  • Construction Management Association of America (CMAA): Founded in 1981, the CMAA promotes the role of professional construction management (CM).

  • CM Focus: CM emphasizes schedule, cost, and quality control.

  • Architect's Role: The architect's role shifted from direct supervision to "observation," with a greater focus on design.

  • CAD/3D Modeling: The introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and 3D modeling revolutionized the design and construction process.

  • Government Construction: Government projects included power plants, military facilities, wastewater treatment plants, prisons, highways, schools, and hospitals.

Project Stakeholders

Diagram: Construction Project Stakeholders

Development of a Project: Keys to Success - First 60 / Last 60 Days

Introduction

• Drew Yantis - Senior Lecturer, Holder Construction

  • 32 years of experience

  • Valued at $8 Billion and 10 Million Square Feet

  • Senior Vice President

  • Market Leader - University Practice

  • 50 Campuses

Steps to Starting a Project

• Establish Project Need (WHY) - What is the purpose of the project?

• Define Project Scope (WHAT) - What are the specific goals and deliverables of the project?

  • Organize a Project Kickoff Meeting - This meeting brings together all stakeholders to discuss the project's goals, scope, and expectations.

• Understand Team Members Roles/Responsibilities & Authority (WHO) - Who is responsible for what tasks? What are their levels of authority?

• Confirm Critical Priorities & Milestones (WHEN) - What are the key deadlines and milestones for the project?

• Define Project Tools & Communication Protocol (HOW) - What tools will be used to manage the project? How will team members communicate?

Team Charter

• Mission (Today) - The current purpose of the project.

• Vision (Tomorrow) - The long-term goals and aspirations of the project.

• Project Objectives - Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound goals for the project.

  • Sustainable & Maintainable - The project should be designed to last and be easy to maintain.

  • On-Time & Budget - The project should be completed within the allocated time and budget.

  • Model Process & Project Principles - The project should follow best practices and principles.

  • Signatories - All stakeholders should sign the team charter to acknowledge their commitment to the project.

The Right Team!

• Similar Experience (4 P's) - The team should have experience in the following areas:

  • Process - Delivery method

  • Product - Type of building

  • Proximity - Location

  • People - Working together effectively

First 60 Days

• Focus on Critical Planning Elements - The first 60 days are crucial for laying the groundwork for a successful project.

  • Cost - Accurate estimate of project costs.

    • Construction Cost - The cost of building the project (not equal to the total project cost).

    • Building Systems Analysis - Detailed analysis of the cost of different building systems.

    • Other Line Items - Contingency, escalation, etc.

  • Schedule - Overall project schedule.

    • Schedule for Entire Project Team - A comprehensive schedule that outlines the tasks and deadlines for all team members.

    • Activities for Key Team Members - Specific tasks and deadlines for key stakeholders, such as the owner, architect, and contractor.

    • Phasing - Negotiated project phases.

  • Quality - Site coordination.

    • Site Access/Egress - Ensuring safe and efficient access to and from the construction site.

    • Minimal Occupant Disruption - Minimizing disruption to existing occupants during construction.

    • Safety Planning - Ensuring the safety of all stakeholders involved in the project.

Last 60 Days

• Focus on Critical Completion - The last 60 days are crucial for ensuring a successful project completion.

  • Cost - Life cycle costs.

    • 10% Annual vs. 5% Annual? - Comparing the annual costs of different options, such as utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance, and staffing.

  • Schedule - Energy and environment.

  • Quality - Community outreach.

    • Interiors / Commissioning - Ensuring the quality of the project's interiors and systems.

Steps to Closing Out a Project

• Transmit Closeout Documents - Providing updated contact lists, warranties, and as-built drawings.

• Train & Orient Maintenance Team - Training the maintenance team on how to operate and maintain the project.

  • Arrange a Debrief - A meeting to discuss the project's successes and challenges.

• Execute Final Subcontract Change Orders - Finalizing any outstanding changes to subcontracts.

• Archive Project Documents - Organizing and storing all project documents for future reference.

• Celebrate Project Completion - Recognizing the hard work and dedication of the team.

"Bricks & Sticks"

• Focus on Execution - The "bricks & sticks" phase of the project focuses on the actual construction process.

  • Cost - Management and reporting of project costs.

  • Schedule - Documentation and adjustment of the project schedule.

  • Quality - Workmanship and service.

Key Quotes

• "A good plan violently executed now is better than a perfect plan tomorrow." - George Patton - This quote emphasizes the importance of taking action and executing a plan, even if it's not perfect.

• "Starting Strong is Good; Finishing Strong is Epic." - Robin Sharma - This quote highlights the importance of finishing a project strong, even if the beginning was good.

• "People may not remember exactly what you did or what you said but they always remember how you made them feel, that’s what matters most." - Tony Hsieh - This quote emphasizes the importance of building relationships and creating positive experiences for stakeholders.

Table of Key Project Phases

Diagram: Project Phases

Conclusion

The development of a successful project requires careful planning, effective execution, and a strong focus on completion. By following the steps outlined in these notes, students can gain a better understanding of the key elements involved in project development and management.

A Journey Through Construction: Milestones and Innovations

Ancient Innovations

Description: This section explores the early beginnings of construction, highlighting the ingenuity of early humans and the impact of groundbreaking inventions.

• Stone Tools and Techniques: Early humans utilized simple stone tools to shape and construct shelters. (Section 1)

• The Wheel (c. 3500 BC): The invention of the wheel revolutionized transportation and construction, making it easier to move heavy materials. (Section 1)

Classical Antiquity

Description: This section delves into the architectural achievements of the ancient world, focusing on the Romans' contributions to construction.

• Roman Concrete (c. 300 BC): The Romans developed a durable form of concrete that could set underwater, enabling the construction of impressive structures like the Pantheon and aqueducts. (Section 2)

• Arch and Dome Construction: The use of arches and domes allowed for the creation of larger and more stable buildings. (Section 2)

Medieval Period

Description: This section examines the architectural innovations and the rise of craft guilds during the medieval period.

• Gothic Architecture (12th–16th centuries): Innovations such as pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses enabled the construction of taller and more light-filled cathedrals. (Section 3)

• The Craft Guilds: European craft guilds emerged primarily from the 12th century onward and flourished until the 16th century. These guilds were associations of skilled artisans and craftsmen who regulated trade practices, set quality standards, and provided training through apprenticeship systems. (Section 3)

  • Significance:

    • Quality Control: Craft guilds established and maintained high standards for the quality of work, ensuring that buildings were constructed to last and met specific criteria. (Section 3)

    • Training and Apprenticeship: Guilds provided structured training programs for apprentices, ensuring the transfer of skills and knowledge from master craftsmen to younger generations. This helped maintain a skilled workforce. (Section 3)

Renaissance and Early Modern Period

Description: This section explores the influence of Leonardo da Vinci and the introduction of iron in construction during the Renaissance and Early Modern Period.

• Leonardo da Vinci's Engineering Designs: Leonardo's sketches included innovative construction machinery and techniques. (Section 4)

• The Use of Iron (18th century): The introduction of iron in construction allowed for stronger and more durable structures. (Section 4)

Industrial Revolution

Description: This section examines the impact of the Industrial Revolution on construction, highlighting the development of steam engines, machinery, and steel-frame construction.

• Steam Engines and Machinery (18th–19th centuries): The development of steam engines and machinery revolutionized construction, enabling large-scale projects and the mass production of building materials. (Section 5)

• Steel Frame Construction (late 19th century): The use of steel frames allowed for the construction of skyscrapers, transforming urban landscapes. (Section 5)

20th Century

Description: This section explores the innovations in construction that emerged during the 20th century, particularly in the post-war era and the rise of suburbia.

• Post-War Reconstruction (1945–1960s): Innovations in prefabrication and mass housing emerged during the reconstruction of war-torn cities. (Section 6)

  • Suburbia: Suburbia began to significantly shape the United States after World War II, around the mid-20th century. Here are some key reasons and impacts:

    • Prefabrication: The use of prefabricated components sped up construction processes and reduced costs. (Section 6)

    • Reinforced Concrete: The combination of concrete and steel reinforcement provided greater strength and flexibility in construction. (Section 6)

Late 20th Century to Present

Description: This section examines the latest advancements in construction, including the rise of computer-aided design, building information modeling, and the green building movement.

• Computer-Aided Design (CAD): The introduction of CAD software revolutionized architectural design and planning. (Section 7)

• Building Information Modeling (BIM): BIM technology allows for the creation of detailed 3D models and improves collaboration among construction professionals. (Section 7)

• The Green Building Movement (late 20th century–present) and Green Building Technologies: The focus on sustainability has led to innovations in energy-efficient materials, renewable energy systems, and sustainable building practices. (Section 7)

  • LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design): The focus on sustainability and energy efficiency led to the development of green building standards like LEED. (Section 7)

• 3D Printing: The advent of 3D printing technology is beginning to revolutionize construction by enabling the rapid and cost-effective creation of complex structures. (Section 7)

Historically Significant Events and Inventions

Description: This section highlights some of the most significant events and inventions in the history of construction.

• The Great Pyramids of Giza (c. 2580–2560 BC): These ancient structures in Egypt are marvels of engineering and construction, showcasing the early use of large-scale construction project management. (Section 8)

• The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BC): The first known building code in ancient Mesopotamia is part of the Code of Hammurabi. This code, established by King Hammurabi of Babylon, is one of the earliest comprehensive legal codes and includes specific laws related to construction and building practices. (Section 8)

  • Key Provisions of the Code of Hammurabi:

    • Law 229: If a builder constructs a house for someone and it collapses, causing the death of the owner, the builder shall be put to death. (Section 8)

    • Law 230: If the collapse kills the owner's son, the builder's son shall be put to death. (Section 8)

    • Law 231: If it kills a slave of the owner, the builder must compensate the owner with another slave. (Section 8)

    • Law 232: If the collapse ruins goods, the builder must compensate for the loss and rebuild the house at his own expense. (Section 8)

  • Historical Significance:

    • Accountability and Responsibility: The Code of Hammurabi highlights the importance of accountability in construction. Builders were held responsible for the safety and integrity of their work, a principle that remains crucial in modern construction management. (Section 8)

    • Legal and Ethical Standards: Understanding these early laws helps appreciate the evolution of legal and ethical standards in construction. It underscores the necessity of adhering to building codes and regulations to ensure safety and quality. (Section 8)

    • Risk Management: The severe penalties for construction failures in the Code of Hammurabi illustrate the early recognition of risk management. Modern construction management continues to prioritize risk assessment and mitigation to prevent accidents and ensure project success. (Section 8)

    • Historical Context: The Code of Hammurabi provides valuable insight into the development of construction practices and regulations. It shows how ancient societies addressed construction challenges and laid the groundwork for contemporary building codes. (Section 8)

• The Skyscraper (late 19th century): The development of steel-frame construction and the elevator made it possible to build skyscrapers, transforming urban landscapes. The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, completed in 1885, is often considered the first skyscraper. (Section 8)

• The Panama Canal (1904–1914): This massive engineering project involved significant advancements in excavation, concrete work, and project management, and it had a profound impact on global trade. (Section 8)

The Evolution of the Architect

Description: This section explores the origins and evolution of the term "architect" and its association with the design and supervision of building construction.

• Ancient Greek Roots: The word "architect" has its roots in ancient Greek, derived from "arkhi-" meaning "chief" and "tekton" meaning "builder" or "carpenter." The term "arkhitekton" referred to a master builder or chief workman. (Section 4)

• First Known Use in English: The first known use of the word "architect" in English dates back to 1563. This usage marked the beginning of the term's association with the design and supervision of building construction, distinguishing architects from builders. (Section 4)