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Chapter 4

  • Difference between potential energy and kinetic energy

    • Potential energy is stored energy, while kinetic energy is the energy of motion

  • First law of thermodynamics

    • Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed

  • Role of ATP in cell biology

    • ATP is the primary energy currency of cells

    • ATP cycle consists of endergonic (energy-requiring) and exergonic (energy-releasing) reactions

  • Difference between endergonic vs exergonic reactions

    • Endergonic reactions require energy input, while exergonic reactions release energy

  • Function and characteristics of enzymes

    • Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions

    • Enzymes are specific to certain substrates and have an active site where the substrate binds

  • Activation energy and active site

    • Activation energy is the energy required to start a chemical reaction

    • Active site is the region of the enzyme where the substrate binds

  • Regulation of enzymes by pH, salt concentration, and temperature

    • Enzymes have optimal pH, salt concentration, and temperature for activity

    • Changes in these factors can denature enzymes and affect their function

  • Difference between positive and negative feedback enzyme regulation

    • Positive feedback amplifies the initial stimulus, while negative feedback counteracts it

  • Terms to know: concentration gradient, diffusion, osmosis, hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic

    • Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between two areas

    • Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration

    • Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

    • Hypertonic solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell

    • Hypotonic solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell

    • Isotonic solution has the same solute concentration as the cell

  • Effects of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions on cells

    • Hypertonic solution causes cells to shrink (crenation)

    • Hypotonic solution causes cells to swell and potentially burst (lysis)

    • Isotonic solution maintains cell shape and volume

  • Difference between active transport and facilitated diffusion

    • Active transport requires energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient

    • Facilitated diffusion uses transport proteins to move molecules down their concentration gradient

  • Passive transport and examples

    • Passive transport is the movement of molecules without the input of energy

    • Examples include diffusion and osmosis

  • Membrane transport requiring transport proteins

    • Active transport and facilitated diffusion require transport proteins to move substances across the membrane

  • Difference between endocytosis and exocytosis

    • Endocytosis is the process of bringing substances into the cell by engulfing them with the cell membrane

    • Exocytosis is the process of releasing substances from the cell by fusing vesicles with the cell membrane

Chapter 5

  • Basic details of photosynthesis and its overall net reaction

    • Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen

    • Overall net reaction: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

  • Terms to know: photon, chlorophyll, photosystem, rubisco

    • Photon is a particle of light

    • Chlorophyll is the pigment that captures light energy in plants

    • Photosystem is a complex of proteins and pigments that carries out the initial steps of photosynthesis

    • Rubisco is the enzyme responsible for carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle

  • Colors of light absorbed and reflected by plants

    • Plants absorb red and blue light for energy

    • Plants reflect green light, which is why they appear green in color

  • Role of accessory pigments in increasing absorbed light colors

    • Accessory pigments broaden the range of light colors that can be absorbed for energy

  • Needs and products of Light Dependent and Light Independent reactions

    • Light Dependent reactions require light energy and produce ATP and NADPH

    • Light Independent reactions (Calvin cycle) use ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 into glucose

  • Photosystem I and photosystem II products

    • Photosystem I produces NADPH

    • Photosystem II produces ATP

  • Chemiosmotic phosphorylation in light-dependent reactions

    • Chemiosmotic phosphorylation is the process of ATP synthesis using the energy from a proton gradient

    • It plays a role in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

Chapter 6

  • Basic details of aerobic respiration and its overall net reaction

    • Aerobic respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP

    • Overall net reaction: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP

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  • Stages of aerobic respiration: Glycolysis, Kreb's Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain

    • Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, Kreb's Cycle in the mitochondria, and Electron Transport Chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane

    • Glycolysis requires glucose and produces pyruvate, ATP, and NADH

    • Kreb's Cycle requires pyruvate and produces ATP, NADH, FADH2, and CO2

    • Electron Transport Chain requires NADH and FADH2 and produces ATP and water

  • Stage of aerobic respiration producing the most ATP

    • Electron Transport Chain produces the most ATP

  • Final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain

    • Oxygen is the final electron acceptor

  • Substrate level phosphorylation and chemiosmotic phosphorylation in aerobic respiration

    • Glycolysis and Kreb's Cycle use substrate level phosphorylation

    • Electron Transport Chain uses chemiosmotic phosphorylation

  • Enzyme synthesizing ATP via chemiosmotic phosphorylation

    • ATP synthase synthesizes ATP via chemiosmotic phosphorylation

  • Net gain of ATP molecules from glucose breakdown via aerobic respiration

    • 36-38 ATP molecules are produced from the breakdown of glucose via aerobic respiration

  • Energy harvest from proteins and fats in mitochondria

    • Mitochondria can also harvest energy from proteins and fats consumed

  • Products of the two types of fermentation

    • Alcoholic fermentation produces ethanol and carbon dioxide

    • Lactic acid fermentation produces lactic acid

  • Role of fermentation in restoring NAD+ supply

    • Fermentation serves to restore NAD+ supply when oxygen levels are low or absent

  • Stage of aerobic respiration synthesizing ATP when oxygen levels are low or absent

Glycolysis can synthesize ATP when oxygen levels are low or absent