Food Microbiology and Fermentation Notes

Fermentation with Yeast

Yeast Fermentation

Fermentation processes often utilize yeast.

Egyptian Bread Making

Images depict traditional Egyptian bread making.

Ingredients for Bread Making

Different ingredients are used in bread making.

Dough Kneading

Elastic Regime

In the elastic regime, materials exhibit a linear relationship between force (stress) and deformation (strain).

$Glutenin + Gliadin = Gluten$

Dough Test

Dough is tested by pulling to observe its elasticity. Within the elastic limit, the dough behaves predictably at a molecular level. Beyond this limit, permanent deformation occurs.

Dough Punching

Dough is punched after the first fermentation to release excess gas.

Following the second fermentation, dough volume doubles, increasing the size of the loaves.

CO₂ Expansion During Baking

$CO_2$ produced during fermentation expands during baking and is captured by proteins, contributing to the bread's structure.

Sourdough Breads

Culture

Sourdough utilizes a culture: a mixture of heterofermentative LAB (Lactic Acid Bacteria) and yeast, with a concentration of $10^7$ to $10^9$ CFU/g.

• Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis:
  • Adds characteristic 'bite' to the bread.
  • Improves texture.
  • Prevents spoilage.

Inoculum

The last batch is used as inoculum by artisans and can propagate for decades.

How to Make Sourdough Starter

• Day 1
  • Mix 1 cup whole wheat flour and 1 cup water.
• Day 2
  • Rest.
• Day 3
  • Add and mix 1 cup whole wheat flour and 1 cup water.
• Day 4
  • Rest.
• Day 5
  • Discard half.
  • Add and mix 1 cup whole wheat flour and 1 cup water.
• Day 6
  • Rest.
• Day 7
  • Discard half.
  • Add and mix 1 cup whole wheat flour and 1 cup water.

Beer

Popularity

Beer is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea.

Production

Produced by saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar.

• Enzymes & Starch From
  • Malted wheat
  • Malted barley

Adjuncts & Flavor

• Unmalted maize
• Unmalted rice
• Flavored with hops

Hops

Flower of the hop plant Humulus lupulus.

Main Beer Styles

Determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing:

• Ale (top fermenting yeast)
• Lager (bottom fermenting yeast)

Ale

• Yeast ferments at higher temperatures and stays at the surface.
  $Saccharomyces cerevisiae$
• Color ranges from very pale to black opaque.
• Popular ales include: Pale Ale, Stout, Porter, Hefeweizen, Blonde, IPA, Belgian Ale, and Amber.

Lager

• Yeast ferments at a lower temperature and does not float at the surface.
  $Saccharomyces carlsbergensis$
• Color ranging from very light to deep black just like ales
• Popular lagers include: Pilsner, Bock, Marzen, Helles, Doppelbok, and Dunkel.

Brewing Process

1. Milling
2. Mashing
3. Lautering
4. Boiling
5. Whirlpooling
6. Filtering
7. Cooling
8. Fermenting
9. Maturing
10. Packaging
11. Distribution

Mashing

• Milled grain (mainly malt) is mixed with hot water to increase surface area and separate smaller pieces from husks.
• Natural enzymes within malt break down starch into fermentable sugar, maltose.
• Takes 1-2 hours; various temperatures activate different enzymes.
  • $\beta$-glucanase: activated at 40°C → breaks down $\beta$-glucan in the mash.
  • Proteinase: activates at 49-55°C → breaks down proteins that cause the beer to be hazy. Too much protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head.
  • Mash rest at 65-71°C → to convert starches to sugar
  • Temperature at 75°C

Lautering

Separation of the wort from spent grain.

• Lauter Tun
  • A false bottom is used to hold back the solids, allowing liquid to pass through.

Boiling

• Sterilizes the wort.
• Hops are added for bitterness, flavor, and aroma compounds.
• Protein in wort coagulates.
• Deactivates all enzymes present in wort.

Fermenting

• Before adding yeast, wort MUST be brought down to fermentation temperatures using a plate heat exchanger.
• After cooling, oxygen is pumped into the wort.
• Sugars are metabolized into alcohol and $CO_2$.
• Cylindroconical tanks are used, featuring a conical bottom and cylindrical top.
  • The cone’s aperture = 60°, allow yeast to flow towards the cones apex.

Carbonation

• To allow $CO_2$ produced by yeast to naturally carbonate the beer, a bung device is put on the tank after high kraeusen.
• The more pressure the bung holds back, the more carbonated the beer becomes.

Inoculum for Fermentation

• S. cerevisiae or S. carlsbergensis
• $10^7$/ml & increase 8 fold over the course of fermentation
• Yeast from 1 fermentation is used to inoculate the next batch for 10 to 50 fermentations, to prevent genetic drift which would change the beer making qualities of the yeast

Conditioning

Yeast settles with sediments, and $CO_2$ is produced.

Filtering

• Stabilizes the flavor.
• Gives its polished shine and brilliance.
• Filter range:
  • Rough filtration
  • Tight filtration
  • Sterile filtration
• Types of filter used:
  • Sheet/pad filter
  • Kieselguhr filter

Sheet/Pad Filter

• Pre-made media
• Allow only particles smaller than a given size through.
• Sheets are placed into the filtering frame, sterilized (with hot water) and then used to filter the beer.
• If blocked, it can be flushed.
• Disposable and replaced between filtration sessions.

Kieselguhr Filter

• Is a diatomaceous earth
• In powder form
• Can filter more beer before needing to be regenerated.

Filling/Packaging

Putting the beer into containers (bottles and kegs) with various sizes (e.g., Sixth Barrel, Quarter Barrel, Half Barrel).

Additional Fermentation

• Some beers undergo fermentation in the bottle, giving natural carbonation.
• Bottled with a viable yeast population in suspension.
• Sugar may be added if no residual fermentable sugar is left.
• Generates $CO_2$

Wine

Varieties of Wine

• White Wine
  • Chardonnay
  • Sauvignon blanc
  • Riesling
• Red Wine
  • Merlot
  • Pinot noir
  • Shiraz
  • Cabernet Sauvignon

Quality of Wines

Determined by the quality of grapes:

• Sugar: acid ratios
• Climate
• Soil
• Vine age
• Pruning methods

White Winemaking

1. Weighing and Sampling the Grapes: Initial quality control.
2. Destemming and Crushing: Separating stems and releasing sugary juice.
3. Pressing: Extracting grape juice.
4. Debourbage: Clarifying the juice.
5. Alcoholic Fermentation in Inox: Transforming sugars into alcohol via yeast.
6. Alcoholic and Malolactic Fermentation in Barrels: Transforming malic acid into lactic acid.
7. Aging: Imparts flavors characteristic of the aging process.
8. Clarification-Stabilization-Filtration: Removing impurities.
9. Blending: Free run wine and the press wine.
10. Bottling

Red Winemaking

1. Weighing and Sampling the Grapes: Initial quality control.
2. Destemming and Crushing: Separating stems and releasing sugary juice.
3. Maceration and Remontage: Extract color, aromas, and tannins.
4. Alcoholic Fermentation: Transforming sugars into alcohol via yeast.
5. Racking: Separating wine from pomace.
6. Aging: Fermented wines are barrel aged to impart oak flavors.
7. Assemblage: Blending the wines.
8. Malolactic Fermentation: Turns tart malic acid into gentler lactic acid.
9. Pressing: Extracting remaining wine from skins.
10. Clarification-Stabilization-Filtration: Removing impurities.
11. Bottling and Bottle Aging: Imparts aromas of time.

Malolactic Fermentation

• Also known as 2° fermentation
• Reduces malic acid (too much results in a bitter and sour taste).
• By product of the TCA cycle
• Starts 1 to 3 weeks after alcoholic fermentation is finished by Oenococcus oeni.

Formula:
$HOOC-C(OH)-CH<em>2-COOH \rightarrow HOOC-C(OH)-CH</em>3 + CO_2$
Malic acid → Lactic acid

Rice Wine

• Types of Rice Wine
  • Mijiu (Chinese)
  • Sake (Japanese)
  • Makgeolli (Korean)
• Alcoholic beverage made from rice
• Fermentation of rice starch converted to sugar
• Amylolytic process is used
• $uparrow$ alcohol content, 18-25% ABV, grape (9-16%)
• Sake is ‘rice beer’ as the brewing process similar to that which is used for beer.

Fermentation processes

Vinegar Fermentation

• As preservative and condiment
• Accidentally discovered when Gluconobacter or Acetobacter spp. contaminated wine and turned it to vinegar.

Formula:
$CH<em>3CH</em>2OH + O<em>2 \rightarrow CH</em>3COOH + H_2O$
Ethanol → Acetic acid

Raw Materials

• Wine
• Cider
• Fruit must
• Malted barley
• Pure alcohol

Vinegar Bacteria

• Acetic acid bacteria
• Gram negative
• Ellipsoidal to rod shape
• Requires aerobic metabolism ($O_2$ as terminal electron acceptor)

Vinegar Production

1. 1st alcoholic fermentation by yeast to produce alcohol.
2. 2nd ethanol oxidized to acetic acid. Glucanobacter oxydans is a strict aerobe.
3. Trickling fermenter is used - A box filled with wood shavings, G. oxydans grows as biofilms (larger surface area to expose to $O_2$). Rotating sprayer at the top sprays alcoholic liquid on the chips.

Mold Fermentation

Tempeh

Why R. oligosporus?

• Contains natural antibiotic agent
• Produces enzymes
• Increases total soluble solids, soluble $N_2$, vits, free FA, free AA
• Contains antioxidant

Tempeh Nutrition

• High-fiber food
  • Soluble and insoluble fiber
• Low in sodium
• Isoflavones strengthen the bones, ease menopause symptoms

Production

1. Soaked 30 min at 25°C
2. Cooked (30 min)
3. Drained, hulls removed
4. Drained & cooled

Tempeh Bongkrek

• Tempeh bongkrek contaminated with Burkholderia cocovenenans produced bongkrekic acid and toxoflavin

Soya Sauce

• A liquid made from soybeans or a combination of soybeans and wheat.
• Thickness of soya sauce also vary.

Beneficial Effects

• Breaks down carbohydrates to oligosaccharides after fermentation, supporting bacteria growth in the large intestine.
• Breaks down proteins, especially key allergy-triggering proteins in Gly m Bd 30K to peptides, preventing an allergenic response.
• Soya sauce polysaccharides lower hyaluronidase, which is associated with inflammation.

Soya Sauce Production

1. To steam the soybeans
2. To crack the wheat
3. To mix the soy beans and wheat
4. To add a seed mold agent, Aspergillus oryzae
5. To make koji, a seed culture
6. To add salt water
7. To ferment moromi for several months
8. To press the liquid out
9. To sterilize by heating and adjust the color, taste and flavor
10. To check the quality and fill into the bottle

High Sodium

• High sodium food is associated with an increased risk of high blood pressure. Angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) is needed to constrict blood vessels, and blood pressure goes up.
• Soy sauce is a high-sodium food with a difference: peptides produced during fermentation inhibit ACE activity.

Food Spoilage

Definition

Change in the physical and chemical properties of food rendering it unfit for consumption.

Causes

• Insect damage
• Physical injury
• Enzymatic degradation
• Microbial activity

Classification of Foods Based on Spoilage

• Stable/Non-perishable foods: Do not spoil unless handled carelessly (e.g., sugar, flour, dry beans).
• Semi-perishable foods: Remain unspoiled for a fairly long period with proper handling and storage (e.g., potatoes, apples).
• Perishable foods: Spoil readily (e.g., meats, fish, eggs, vegetables).

Basic Types of Food Spoilage

• Appearance: When a food “looks bad”. Microbial growth (mycelia or colonies visible on surface, cloudiness in liquids). Changes in food color due to heme or chlorophyll breakdown.
• Textural Changes: Slime formation (due to surface accumulation of microbial cells, tissue degradation). Tissue softening due to enzymatic degradation (e.g., soft rot in veggies).
• Changes in Taste and Odor: Development of nitrogenous compounds (ammonia, amines, etc.), sulfides, organic acids.

Microbes in Food

• Number and type of microbes in food are largely determined by:
  • Environment from which the food was obtained
  • Intrinsic factors: microbiological quality of the food in its raw or unprocessed state
  • Handling and processing sanitation
  • Extrinsic factors: effectiveness of packaging, handling, and storage conditions in restricting microbial growth

Meat Products

Chemical Composition

• 75% water
• 18% protein
• 3% fat
• 1% ash
• 3% traces of CHO, vitamins, etc.

Microbial Contamination

• The interior portions of meat are usually free of microbial contaminations if a healthy animal is properly slaughtered.
• Fresh-cut meats get immediately contaminated with microorganisms derived from globes, hands, implements used to cut the meat, hides, hairs, intestines of the animals, and the air of the slaughterhouse.
• Each new surface of meat, resulting from a new cut, adds more microorganisms to the exposed tissue.

Common Microorganisms

• Bacteria: Bacillus, Clostridium, Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Micrococcus, Streptococcus, Sarcina, Salmonella.
• Molds: Cladosporium, Geotrichum, Mucor, and Penicillium sporotrichum. Yeast occurs less commonly.

Whole Meats

• The microflora of fresh meat is composed primarily of:
  • Gram-negative aerobic rods such as Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, and Moraxella.
  • Bacillus and Clostridia (e.g., C. perfringens) are also common on all types of meat.
• Although subsurface portions of meat are generally sterile, some parts, such as lymph nodes, may be heavily contaminated.
• Mechanical disruption of the tissue during processing can distribute microorganisms from the meat surface throughout the product.

Ground Meat

• Consists of the same microorganisms as whole meat but always has higher microbial loads because of a greater surface area, every handling and processing, and one heavily contaminated piece can contaminate an entire lot when they are ground together.
• Use of soya protein extenders and mechanically deboned meat does not change the microflora significantly but does raise the pH of meat, which leads to more rapid spoilage.
• Ground beef pH: 5.1-6.2, extenders raise it to pH: 6.0-7.0

Spoilage of Meat

• Results of bacteria colonized muscle surface.
• Colonization begins with the attachment of bacteria - loose and reversible sorption.
• Followed by irreversible attachment to surface by – extracellular polysaccharide layer → glycocalyx.
• Factors that influence bacterial attachment:
  • Surface characteristics
  • Growth phase
  • Temperature
  • Motility of the bacteria

Vacuum Packaged Meat

• 80% of beef leaves packing plant in a vacuum package.
• Not all $O_2$ is removed during packaging, but residual is consumed by respiration of aerobic m/o and the tissue itself.
• Results in increased $CO_2$ level and thus get a longer shelf life.
• Impermeable films used: $CO_2$ levels are higher, Eh lower.
• Microflora shifts from predominantly Gram -ve aerobes to Gram +ve anaerobes & microaerophilic LAB like Lactobacillus, Carnobacterium and Leuconostoc.
• If nitrites have been added to the vacuum packages meat, LAB domination is even more pronounced.
• In general, vacuum-packaged meats are considered very safe foods and free from most pathogenic species of bacteria with the possible exception of S. aureus and Y. enterocolitica

Spoilage in Vacuum Packaged Meats

• Is visible by:
  • Slime development
  • Greening caused by microbial production of $H<em>2O</em>2$ or $H_2S$
• Off odors which result from
  • release of short-chain fatty acids
  • Production of volatile compounds, e.g., acetoin, diacetyl, and $H_2S$

Processed Meats

• Composed of a variety of blended ingredients, any of which can contribute microorganisms to the food.
• Yeast and bacteria are the most common causes of:
  • Slimy spoilage
  • Sour spoilage
  • Greening

Cured Meats

• Cured meats are processed (e.g., bacon, hams) to preserve them.
• They are resistant to spoilage because of the use of nitrite/nitrate, smoking or brining of hams, and the high-fat content with low water activity ($a_w$ ) of bacon.
• Spoilage is often caused by molds e.g., Aspergillus, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Botrytis.

Factors Influencing Bacteria Type

1. Condition of the products:
   • Cooked products have a higher pH (>6.0), which may allow the growth of Gram-negative facultative anaerobic pathogens like Yersinia enterocolitica.
   • Raw products have a pH of about 5.6, which favors LAB, especially Lactobacillus, Carnobacterium, and Leuconostoc.
2. Nitrate concentration in meat:
   • High nitrite concentration favors LAB.
   • Low nitrite levels may allow the growth of Brochothrix thermosphacta.

Spoilage Types and Associated Microbes

Meat Spoilage Overview

Meat spoilage is categorized into:

• Putrefaction
• Sourness
• Rancidity
• Infection
• Food/Meat poisoning. Can be through intoxication.

Poultry

• General trends are the same as other fresh meats.
• Contamination and cross-contamination with fecal material occur during transportation.
• Whole birds have lower counts than cut-up parts.
• Additional processing steps add to the microbial load.
• Skin of poultry: Acinetobacteri and Moraxella, associated with feathers.
• In the advanced stages of spoilage, the skin will often fluoresce under UV due to the present of fluorescent pseudomonads.
• Off odors appear before sliminess develops.
• During initial spoilage, the skin supports bacterial growth better than the tissue.

Fish

• Have a high nitrogen content but no carbohydrate.
• Microflora of freshly caught fish usually reflects the microbial conditions of the water from which they are harvested.
• Fish microflora: Alcaligenes, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, and Vibrio.
• Frozen fish products have lower counts than fresh products.
• When the fish are cleaned and cut on shipboard under poor handling conditions, they invite more microorganisms to grow on it.
• High microbial loads due to unsanitized processing steps.
• The microorganism can be exemplified by the species of Achromonobacter, Bacillus, Micrococcus and Pseudomonas.
• Bacteria on fresh fish are concentrated on the outer slime, gills, and intestine.
• Spoilage of salt- and fresh-water fish occur in similar ways; most susceptible part of fish is the gill region.

Detecting Spoilage

The best way to detect spoilage in fresh fish is to sniff the grill for off odors produced by Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter-Moraxella bacteria. The odors include ammonia, triethylamine, $H_2S$, and other compounds.

Spoilage Mechanisms

If the removal of fish’s guts is not done quickly, bacteria will move through the intestinal walls and invade the meat that lies next to the abdominal cavity.

Crustaceans & Mollusks

• Spoilage of crustaceans (shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and crayfish) is similar, but these products have some CHO (0.5%) and more free amino acids. So spoilage can occur more rapidly.
• Mollusks (oyster, clams, mussels, squid, and scallops) have more CHO (3-5%) and less nitrogen than either fish or shellfish.
• Microflora of mollusks can vary a great deal depending on the quality of the water from which they are harvested.
• Shellfish are filter feeders and can be expected to contain almost any microorganism or virus that occurs in the water where they were obtained.
• If these products were taken from clean waters, then the usual Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter-Moraxella type of spoilage bacteria dominate.

Fish Spoilage Types

Vegetables

Typical Composition

• 88% $H_2O$
• 8.6% CHO. Includes readily available mono- and disaccharides like glucose and maltose, as well as more complex oligosaccharides, which are available to fewer types of microorganisms.
• 1.9% protein
• 0.3% fat
• 0.84% minerals
• Also contains fat and water-soluble vitamins and nucleic acid (<1%)
• pH of most veggies is around 6.0; within the growth range of many bacteria

Susceptibility to Spoilage

• Vegetables are a good substrate for yeast, molds, or bacteria.
• It is estimated that 20% of all harvested fruits and vegetables for humans are lost to spoilage by these microorganisms.
• Because bacteria grow more rapidly, they usually out-compete fungi for readily available substrate in vegetables. As a result, bacteria are of greater consequence in the spoilage of vegetables with intrinsic properties that support bacterial growth.

Microflora

• Microflora of vegetables is primarily composed of:
  • Gram-positive bacteria like LAB
  • Coryneforms and staphylococci, the latter coming from the hands of employees during processing
• Staphylococci are usually unable to proliferate, but cross-contamination can introduce them into other foods where growth conditions are more favorable.

Factors Influencing Microflora

The microflora of vegetable will reflect:

• The sanitation of processing steps
• The condition of the original raw product
• Soil-borne microorganisms such as Clostridia are common on raw vegetables, and some species, like C. botulinum, are of such great concern that they are the focus of processing steps designed to destroy microorganisms.

Source of Contamination

• Surface contamination: soil, water, air, human pathogens from manure
• Harvesting: hand-picking vs. machine. High damage if crop is ripe. Mold on harvestor: Geotrichium candicium
• Packaging: Containers reused-sanitized
• Processing plant
• Markets: handling, cross-contamination

Type of Spoilage

• Bacterial soft rot
  • Caused by Erwinia carotovora, ferment pectins.
  • Pseudomonas marginalis, Bacillus, and Clostridium cause water-soaked appearance, a soft, mushy consistency, and bad odor.
• Anthracnose
  • Caused by Collectotrichum lindemuthianum
  • Spotting of leaves and fruits
• Black mold rot
  • Caused by Aspergillus niger
  • Dark brown to black masses of spores of the mold are termed as smut.
• Rhizopus soft rot
  • Caused by Rhizopus spp.
  • Soft and mushy rot
  • Cottony growth of mold forms black spots of sporangia covering the foods.
• Alternaria rot
  • Caused by Alternaria tenuis
  • Greenish-brown to brown-black spots.

Milk and Dairy Products

Milk

• A white emulsion high in fat content containing protein; CHO: lactose, glucose, galactose, Ca, K, Mg, Na, Cl; Vit A, B6, B12, C, D, E, K, thiamine, biotin, riboflavin, folates

Dairy Products

• Milk and cream
• Butter
• Cheese
• Fermented milk
• Condensed & dried milk
• Frozen desserts

Spoilage Organisms

• Few spoilage microorganisms utilize fat as a carbon or energy source. This is because fat is in the form of globules surrounded by a protective membrane composed of glycoproteins, lipoproteins, and phospholipids.
• Many microorganisms cannot utilize lactose, therefore, rely on proteolysis or lipolysis.

Microbial Growth Inhibitors in Raw Milk

• Citrate can be utilized by many microorganisms, but the amount present is not sufficient to support significant growth.
• Glucose is sufficient to allow the initiation of growth, but for fermentative microorganisms to continue growth, they must have the transport system to utilize lactose.

Milk Protein and Inhibitors

• 2 primary milk proteins:
  • Caseins: In the form of highly hydrated micelles and readily susceptible to proteolysis.
  • Whey: Less susceptible to microbial proteolysis than caseins.
• Major inhibitors:
  • Lactoferrin: Inhibits psychrotrophic aerobes that commonly spoil refrigerated milk. Citrate limits its effectiveness, citrate competes for binding the iron.
  • Lactoperoxidase system: Catalyzes the oxidation of thiocyanate and the simultaneous reduction of $H<em>2O</em>2$, resulting in the accumulation of hypothiocyanite. LAB, coliforms, and various pathogens are inhibited.

Spoilage of Milk

• Souring: Caused by Streptococcus lactis, Enterococci, Lactobacilli, Micrococci.
• Gas production: $H<em>2$, $CO</em>2$ produced. Caused by coliforms, Clostridium, Bacillus, yeast.
• Proteolysis: Causes bitter taste; caused by Bacillus, Micrococcus, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Serratia.
• Changes in color and taste:
  • Rancid flavor & odor resulting from lipase due to the liberation of C4 to C8 F.A
  • Higher molecular weight F.A produce a ‘soapy’ flavor
  • Low levels of unsaturated F.A oxidized to ketones and aldehydes: a ‘card-boardy’ off-flavor

Cereal and Bakery Products

Bread

• Ropiness of bread is common in home-baked bread. Caused by Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, and other species. Due to the capsulation of bacillus, ropiness occurs. Odor is evident of spoilage, then discoloration, and finally softening of the crumb with stickiness and stringiness.
• Red bread is caused by the pigmented growth of Serratia marcescens. Molds such as neurospora sitophila and Geotrichum aurantiacum can also cause red coloration

Molds

Mycotoxins

Definition

Toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungus.

Types of Toxigenic Fungi

• Field fungi: Invade and produce their toxins before harvest (e.g., Fusarium spp.).
• Storage fungi: Invade grain or seed during storage and are generally not present in large quantities before harvest in the field (e.g., Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp.).

Mycotoxin Examples

Characteristics of Mycotoxin-Induced Disease

• Not transmitted among animals
• Pharmaceutical treatment does not alter the course of the disease
• Mycotoxicosis most often presents as an uncertain, sub-acute, or chronic condition

Treatment of Mycotoxin-Induced Disease

• For most mycotoxins, there is no specific treatment or antidote.
• Supplementing with vitamins & selenium may be helpful, and provision of adequate high-quality protein.

Mycotoxins from Aspergillus spp.