Unit Four: Politics, Economy, and Society in Ethiopia (Late 13th to Early 16th Century)

The "Restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty

• Claim of Legitimacy: The rulers of the "Solomonic" Dynasty asserted they were direct descendants of the last king of Aksum. They used this claim to justify taking state power from the Zagwe dynasty, whom they labeled as "illegitimate" rulers.

• Nomenclature and Evidence: The term "Restoration" is placed in quotation marks because the claim lacks historical evidence. Similarly, "Solomonic" is quoted because the descent from King Solomon of Israel is considered legendary rather than factual.

• The Kibre Negest ("Glory of Kings"): This document provided the detailed elaboration of these claims, associating Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.

  • It claims the Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I.

  • Menilek I is identified as the son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.

• Historical Continuity: Ethiopian monarchs from the reign of Yikuno-Amlak until Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I based on this tradition.

Power Struggle, Consolidation, and Territorial Expansion

• Succession Crisis ($1285$–$1300$): Following the end of Yikuno-Amlak’s reign in $1285$, the kingdom faced political instability due to constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons.

  • The struggle intensified from $1294$ to $1299$, during the reigns of the five sons of Yegba-Tsion.

• The Royal Prison of Amba-Gishen: The succession problem was partially resolved in $1300$ during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. $1299$-$1314$).

  • Location: Amba-Gishen is located in present-day southern Wollo.

  • Function: All male members of the royal family were confined there to prevent civil war. They remained in the prison until one was selected for installation in power.

  • Security: The prison was guarded by soldiers loyal to the reigning monarch.

  • Process: Upon a monarch’s death, court dignitaries sent an army to escort the designated successor to the throne.

  • Termination: The practice continued until the prison was destroyed by the forces of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi in $1540$.

Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

• Nature of the Medieval Capital: From $1270$ until the establishment of Gondar in $1636$, the monarchs did not maintain a permanent capital.

• Shift in the Center of Power:

  • Initial center: Medieval Amhara (South Wollo) near Lake Haiq.

  • Southward shift: Districts of Menz, Tegulet, and Bulga.

  • Final shift: Regions of high altitude including Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi, and Zequalla mountains.

• Reign of Yikuno-Amlak: Focused on consolidating authority. He quickly subdued Ifat, a Muslim center near Shewa.

• Reign of Amde-Tsion (r. $1314$-$1344$): He was the first "Solomonic" king to pursue a policy of rapid and wide territorial expansion.

  • Motives: Economic (control of trade routes) and political (seizure of territories).

  • Expansion Milestones:

    • Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam: Around $1323/4$.

    • Bizamo and Damot: $1316/7$.

    • Bete-Israel (between Dambiya and Tekeze River): Around $1332$.

    • The Red Sea Coast.

• Administrative Strategies:

  • To secure the northern provinces to Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (northeastern Tigray) to his wife, Bilen-Saba.

  • His son, Bahr-Sagad, was appointed governor of Tigray.

  • In $1325$, he campaigned in the Eritrean region, appointing a governor titled Ma'ekale-Bahir (later changed to Bahire-Negash).

• Resistance: Faced stiff resistance from Ifat, Shewa, and the rebellious army at Enderta led by Yibeka-Igzi in the $1320s$.

• Southern Influence: Muslim sultanates in the southeast paid tribute. Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo, along with Gurage-speaking areas, were brought under the influence of the Christian state.

Evangelization, Religious Reforms, and Religious Movements

• Evangelization Efforts:

  • Christianity had existed in areas like Shewa before the kingdom's expansion.

  • Abba Iyesus-Mo'a (Haik Estifanos) opened learning opportunities for Christians.

  • Abune Tekle-Haymanot (Debre Libanos) revived Christianity in Shewa and evangelized southern areas including medieval Damot.

  • Tekle-Haymanot baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.

• The Ewostatewos Movement ($13th$ Century):

  • Abba Ewostatewos founded a community in Sara'e (Eritrea).

  • Core Teaching: Strict observance of the Sabbath on Saturday.

  • Exile: Opposition forced him to flee to Egypt. Declared followers like Bekimos, Merkoryewos, and Gebre–Iyasus returned from Armenia (led by Abba Absad) to spread the teaching in Enfranz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.

  • Opposition: Led by Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe Birhan of Hayq Monastery. The monarch imprisoned supporters to prevent kingdom division.

  • Persistence: Despite exclusion from church services, they sustained themselves in monasteries like Debre-Bizan and Debre-San.

• The Estifanosites (Deqiqe Estifanos):

  • Founded by Abba Estifanos from Agame.

  • Principles: Rigid organization, poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality, and independence from secular authority.

  • Conflicts: Estifanos initially convinced Atse Takla Maryam (r. $1430$-$1433$) of his peaceful intent. However, he collided with Zara-Yaqob over the Emperor's religious initiatives and royal supremacy in spiritual matters.

  • Resolution: King Naod was more favorably inclined. They were eventually reintegrated under Bishop Yeshaq.

• Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r. $1434$-$1468$):

  • Goal: Create a religiously homogenous society and a suitable church-state union.

  • Specific Measures:

    1. Settled conflict with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving the Saturday Sabbath.

    2. Abolished pagan worship.

    3. Mandated fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and the use of Father Confessors.

    4. Branding: Ordered Christians to have the names of 'the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost' branded on their foreheads.

    5. Affixed the sign of the cross to all belongings, including clothes, weapons, and ploughs.

    6. Encouraged libraries in every church.

  • Literary Works: Zara-Yaqob wrote Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, and Metsafe-te’aqebo Mister. Fragments of Te’amre Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.

Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

• Emergence and Trade: Multiple Muslim sultanates emerged from the $14th$ century. Trade was the primary source of livelihood and the foundation for state formation.

• Major Sultanates:

  • Ifat: ($1285$-$1415$).

  • Adal: ($1360s$-$1577$).

• Trade Routes and Infrastructure:

  • Zeila was the primary trade outlet.

  • Port towns included Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca.

  • Market centers: Weez-Gebeya (Western Shewa), Suq-Wayzaro (Damot), Suq-Amaja, and Gandabalo (Ifat-Awsa route).

  • Caravan entrepots: Dabarwa (seat of the Bahre-Negash) and Asmara (hinterland of Massawa).

Rivalry Between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates

• Root Cause: Competition for control of the Zeila trade route and the commodities passing through it.

• The First Conflict ($1328$): Sultan Haqaddin I of Ifat stopped and imprisoned Amde-Tsion’s agent, Ti’iyintay, who was returning from Cairo.

• Amde-Tsion’s Response: He defeated Haqaddin I and replaced him with his brother, Sabradin. Later, Sabradin allied with Hadiya and Dawaro but was captured, and Jamaladin was installed.

• Establishment of Adal:

  • Adal was a branch of the Walasma family that moved from Ifat to Harar in $1367$.

  • Centers: First at Dakar; moved to Harar in $1520$; then to Awsa in $1576$ due to Oromo pressure.

• Succession of Conflict:

  • Haqaddin II ($1376$-$1386$): Refused tribute; died fighting in $1386$.

  • Sa’d ad-Din II (c. $1386$-$1415$): Defeated by King Dawit in $1402/3$ and killed by King Yishaq in $1415$ at Zeila.

  • Battle of Yeguba ($1445$): Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay. His son, Mohammed Ahmed (r. $1445$-$1471$), submitted as a vassal to Ba’ede Mariam.

  • Emir Mahfuz and Imam Ahmed: Emir Mahfuz died in $1517$ fighting Emperor Lebne-Dengel. He was succeeded by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi ("Ahmed Gragn").

External Relations

• Relations with Egypt: Primarily religious.

  • In $1272$, Yekuno-Amlak requested an Abun from Sultan Baybars.

  • Conflict arose in the early $14th$ century when Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted Copts; Amde-Tsion threatened to divert the Nile.

  • Exchanges: King Dawit received a piece of the "True Cross" in exchange for religious paintings sent to the Sultan.

• Relations with Europe: Centered on the legend of "Prester John."

  • Diplomatic Missions:

    1. $1332$: Message from Amde-Tsion to King Phillip of France.

    2. $1395$: Ethiopian delegation at coronation in Milan.

    3. $1400$: King Henry IV of England sends a letter to "Prester John."

    4. $1402$: King Dawit sends Antonio Bartoli to Europe.

    5. $1418$: Attendance at the Council of Constance.

    6. $1450$: Pietro Rombulo sent to Alphonso of Aragon on behalf of Zara-Yaqob.

  • Artifacts: Maps such as Egyptus Novelo ($c.\,1454$) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo ($1460$) depicted Ethiopia.

• Relation with Portugal:

  • Queen Elleni sent an Armenian named Mathew to Portugal around $1512$ to seek support against the Turks.

  • Portuguese Embassy under Rodrigo di Lima reached Ethiopia in $1520$, staying for six years with the goal of establishing a naval port.