The Theory of Crime Prevention and Crime Control Notes on Crime Control

The Expanded Crime Hypothesis in Crime Prevention and Control

To effectively differentiate between the concepts of crime prevention (CP) and crime control (CC), criminologists and practitioners utilize the expanded crime hypothesis. This theoretical framework posits that, with the specific exception of crimes of compassion, every criminal act necessarily involves two fundamental constituent elements: predisposition and precipitation. Predisposition remains the internal, psychological, and physiological state and motivation of the individual before the act, while precipitation involves the external circumstances and environmental factors that facilitate the commission of the crime. Understanding these two pillars is essential for developing interventions that either address the root causes of criminality or mitigate the opportunities for crimes to manifest in society.

The Theoretical Framework of Predisposition

Predisposition refers to the underlying psychological motivation of an individual to engage in criminal behavior. This state is not spontaneous but is derived from a complex interplay of the person's unique psychological and physiological makeup, as well as the specific environment in which they were raised and nurtured. An individual's motivation is a critical factor in the eyes of the law and criminology, as it determines whether a person acted willfully or negligently. Furthermore, it helps assess whether the individual possessed the mental capacity to understand the nature and consequences of their actions. These factors are central to the legal process, as they are weighed heavily when determining whether a person can be held criminally responsible and prosecuted for their conduct.

The Role of Socialisation and Locus of Control

The internal element of predisposition necessitates that criminologists focus on the process of socialisation within families and the broader community. Socialisation is the fundamental educational and developmental process through which individuals are taught to willingly abide by the law and internalize societal norms. However, the quality of socialisation is highly dependent on the environment. Areas characterized by low economic activity and poor infrastructure present significant challenges to the successful rearing of children in a well-socialised environment. Such conditions often lead to children growing up without adequate discipline or a robust sense of morality. Within this context, discipline is defined as a person’s inner motivation to comply willingly with the laws and rules of society, reflecting an internal locus of control or self-discipline rather than a response to external pressure.

Developmental Perspectives on Moral Thinking

The development of morality and the internal locus of control are often analyzed through the stages of cognitive and moral development. As noted by Crain ($1985$), Jean Piaget identified two primary stages of moral development in children, divided by the age of approximately $10$ to $11$ years. According to Piaget, children aged $11$ years or younger perceive rules as fixed, absolute entities that are set by authority and must be obeyed without question. In contrast, children older than $11$ years begin to develop a more nuanced understanding, realizing that rules are social constructs that may be changed if a majority agrees. Expanding on this work, Lawrence Kohlberg, a follower of Piaget, proposed a more detailed sequence for moral thinking. Kohlberg uncovered additional stages of moral development that continue to evolve well into adolescence and adulthood. This progression in moral reasoning forms the basis of voluntary compliance with the law, which is the primary objective of crime prevention: to positively socialise individuals and optimize environments to support this development.

Stages of Crime Prevention: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary

Crime prevention focuses primarily on the element of predisposition, applying external control measures only when internal predispositions fail. The Australian Institute for Criminology ($2009$) identifies three distinct levels of CP. Primary crime prevention aims to prevent criminal behavior before it ever develops by addressing systemic factors such as poverty and unemployment. Examples include school-based initiatives designed to reduce absenteeism and improve academic achievement, thereby strengthening social structures and reducing environmental opportunities for the youth to consider crime. Secondary crime prevention targets individuals, places, or situations identified as being at high risk of criminal involvement. According to Goliath’s Business Knowledge on Demand ($2005$), this level involves rapid intervention through youth programs and neighborhood dispute-resolution centers where communities can debate and solve immediate problems. Finally, tertiary crime prevention responds to crimes already committed by addressing known offenders or established crime patterns. This level focuses on the criminal justice system (CJS), using interventions and community-based sanctions, such as mediation, to encourage reparation and deter future offenses.

The Theory of Precipitation and Choice

Precipitation refers to the specific external circumstances that favor the commission of a crime and may induce a perpetrator to act. This concept is built on the premise that a potential offender conducts a rational evaluation of the circumstances surrounding a criminal act before deciding whether to proceed. The perpetrator assesses variables such as the time and space available to commit the act and the probability of success. Elements considered during this evaluation include existing security measures, the level of precaution taken by the potential victim, and the presence or absence of visible policing. The individual weighs their own abilities against the defenses protecting the potential target. If the perpetrator reaches a positive assessment of their chances, the crime is likely to occur.

Routine Activity Theory and the Crime Triangle

The precipitation process is often illustrated through the crime triangle, also referred to as the problem analysis triangle. This model is rooted in Routine Activity Theory (RAT), developed by Cohen and Felson. RAT suggests that in the absence of effective controls, motivated offenders will naturally prey upon attractive targets. The crime triangle identifies three essential elements for a criminal act: a motivated offender, an attractive target or victim, and a specific place. For a crime to be prevented, any of these elements can be neutralized by a specific controller. An offender may be influenced by a handler (such as a spouse or parent who disapproves of the act). A place may be secured by a manager who acts as a deterrent. Finally, a target or victim may be protected by an effective guardian, such as a visible police officer or a diligent parent. A crime typically occurs when there is a motivated offender, a potential victim, and an absent or ineffective guardian.

Pre-incipitation and Pre-discipitation

Expansion of crime hypotheses by Coetze ($1987$) introduces the concepts of pre-incipitation and pre-discipitation as subsets of the precipitation element. Pre-incipitation occurs when the perpetrator's evaluation of their own strengths versus the victim's weaknesses results in a decision to commit the crime immediately. Conversely, pre-discipitation occurs when the perpetrator’s assessment leads them to decide against committing the crime at that moment. This might result in the offender looking for a different, less-defended target or postponing the criminal attempt to a later stage or another location where the conditions appear more favorable.

Mechanisms and Strategies of Crime Control

While crime prevention addresses predisposition, crime control (CC) focuses on managing the element of precipitation by eliminating circumstances that favor criminal activity. This is achieved through three primary types of control. Mechanical control involves physical barriers such as walls, fences, burglar bars, and safes. Technological control utilizes electronic systems like alarms, infra-red beams, and closed-circuit television (CCTV). Operational control includes active measures such as police patrols, roadblocks, cordon-and-search operations, undercover surveillance, and the use of crime intelligence. These measures collectively manage time and space, allowing authority figures or community members to dominate an area and prevent perpetrators from acting. A prominent example of successful operational control was the visible policing strategy implemented during the $2010$ FIFA Soccer World Cup. However, it is noted that while these measures may displace crime, individuals with a strong predisposition will continue to seek opportunities elsewhere unless the underlying drive to commit crime is addressed through prevention.