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CIE A2 Level English: Stages of Child Language Acquisition

The Main Stages of Early Development

Most linguists believe language acquisition in children starts before birth. According to a French study by J. Mehler (1988), French babies as young as 4 days old recognized French and were more interested as opposed to hearing English or Italian.

Before birth

Babies are believed to acquire language before it is even born. It becomes acclimatised to the sounds of its native language.

Babbling (6-12 months)

Before babbling, children will go through biological/vegetative noises (0-2 months), cooing and laughing (2-5 months), and vocal play (5-8 months DURING babbling).

  • during these stages, children will go through various phases of phonological development

    • pre-expansion: where the number of different phonemes produced by a child increases initially

    • phonemic expansion: the number of different phonemes produced increase until about 9 or 10 months

    • phonemic contraction: sounds that are still needed in a child’s native language are kept but everything else is discarded

    • intonation: the change in pitch during babbling/speech which can indicate phrases

In the first year, babies experience the babbling stage from about 6 to 9 months old. This can develop as either reduplicated babbling or variegated babbling.

  • reduplicated babbling: repetition of certain syllables e.g gagaga or googoogoo

  • variegated babbling: babbling of a variety of syllables e.g goo-ga-ba-ga

Caregivers and parents will often speak in ‘caretaker language’.

Caretaker speech has the following observable features:

  • higher intonation

  • repetition

  • limited vocabulary

  • simple grammar

  • recasting

Caretaker language helps children develop the social skills to be able to hold a conversation. This includes spoken language features such as turn-taking and feedback.

Despite not being able to speak properly, children are still able to understand words spoken to them. This is because the comprehension of phonological patterns and meanings develops more quickly than a child’s ability to reproduce them.

Babies can also differentiate between speakers by the age of 3 months, hence why they tend to stop crying when they hear their parents. By 10 months old, they will develop phonemes that are specific to their native language, point and babble in a way that resembles speech on top of recognising repeated phrases.

Holophrastic Stage (1-2 years)

Between the age of 1 and 2 years old, children go through the holophrastic stage. The holophrastic stage includes the one-word stage and the two-word stage.

In the one-word stage, 60% of a child’s utterances at this stage are nouns. It is also at this stage where they begin to develop Michael Halliday’s instrumental and personal functions. Children at this stage may also exhibit errors of:

  • underextension: restricts word application e.g the colour white is used to describe snow but the child can be confused when it hears paper being described with the same word

  • overextension: word application is wider and precise application is misunderstood e.g car can refer to anything with wheels

  • deletion: simplification of pronunciation by deleting of certain sounds

  • substitution: simplification of pronounciation by substituting difficult sounds for easier sounds

  • reduplication: different sounds in a word are pronunced the same way

In the two-word stage, children have a vocaulary of about 50 words. Language is still limited but understanding is wider. No inflections to mark number, person, or tense are used, though children may use pronouns.

Telegraphic Stage (2-3 years)

Children have a huge increase in vocabulary by this stage. They are more logically coherent. They can also understand contrasting concepts.

Utterances at this stage are characterised by their lack of function words such as prepositions, conjunctions, and articles. They will mainly consist of content words.

At around age 3, there is a dramatic change of language, such as:

  • use of conjunctions, mostly ‘and‘, which leads to more complex/compound sentences

  • non-fluency features

Children will engage with two types of child languages: monologues and dialogues.

Monologues occur at around age 2 and children will provide a running commentary. Dialogue occurs during a conversation between a child and another person.

Post-Telegraphic Stage (3-5 years)

At this stage, children’s speech will become more reminiscent of adult speech. Function words will be used alongside content words; contracted forms, verb inflections, and the formation of pronouns become more accurate

By about age 4, a child will speak in perfectly accurate complete sentences.

David Crystal’s Stages of Language Acquisition

David Crystal proposed that children learn language in five stages. These stages often tie in with each other.

Stage 1

This stage can also be referred as part of the holophrastic stage. A child’s first utterances serve 3 purposes:

  • to get someone’s attention

  • to direct attention to something

  • to get what they want

Stage 1 can progress to the two-word stage and making requests.

They will make basic statements such as “daddy car“ or “mummy drink“. They will use intonation as they do not have the full vocabulary to express themselves.

Stage 2

Children begin to ask questions, usually interrogatives such as ‘where‘. This involves Halliday’s heuristic, interactional, and personal functions.

At this stage, children are concerned with the classifying and naming of things; Jean Aitchison’s three stages of vocabulary acquisition (1987) relate to this stage. The three stages of vocabulary acquisition are:

  • labelling - children make the link of a word to objects, people, or experiences that they refer to

  • packaging - children learn the word’s range of meaning → under/overextension

  • networking - children begin to grasp the connections between words including relationships such as hypernyms and hyponyms

Stage 3

Children continue to ask more questions, but they will often be identified as questions through intonation. Sentence structure also becomes more complex e.g “I want mummy [to] take it [to] work“. Children will begin to refer to people’s mental states as well as past tense; their grasp of the future tense is still not developed. They will articulate the changing nature of things.

Stage 4

Children will use more complex sentence structures, which leads to:

  • explanation of things

  • asking for explanations, especially ‘why‘ questions

  • making a wider range of requests

Halliday’s regulatory function is used for questioning, while the personal function is used for discovery.

Children have now developed pragmatics by this stage. They know how to use language to suit the context or situation they are in. Some language features that develop in this stage include:

  • contracted negatives e.g don’t, couldn’t

    • ‘isn’t’ is not developed until later

  • modal auxiliary verbs e.g do, can, will

  • (implied) relative clauses e.g that

Stage 5

Children are able to use language to carry out all their needs, by using Halliday’s seven functions of language, such as:

  • giving information (representational)

  • asking and answering questions (heuristic)

  • requesting (instrumental/regulatory)

  • suggesting (interactional/regulatory

  • offering (interactional)

  • stating intentions (personal)

  • asking intentions of others (interactional)

  • expressing feelings and attitudes (personal function)

  • asking feelings and attitudes of others (interactional)

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence to observe their cognitive development. He came about his theory in the 1920s-30s following his job at the Binet Institute to create French versions of questions on English intelligence tests.

Piaget believed cognitive ability is inborn.

The sequence of stages is universal and always follows the same order. However, children are not guaranteed to follow the stages at the same rate.

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years)

The goal of the sensorimotor stage is object permanence. A baby will focus on physical sensations and body coordination. Other goals of this stage include:

  • self-recognition: determining oneself as separate from others

  • deferred imitation: the repetition of an action based on the action being done previously by another person from an earlier time

  • representational play: engaging with toys or play in a manner that resembles real life, people, and/or actions

As long as a child engages with its environment through physical activities, their language and cognitive development will increase substantially as they realize words can be used to represent objects and feelings.

Pre-Operational Stage (2 years to 7 years)

Children at this stage will begin to think in definitive terms. They can classify objects but still struggle to classify things into sub-sets. However, they will also have an egocentric perspective of the world.

They are still not able to think logically, believing the world for how it looks rather than how it is.

Children will also develop animism, which is the tendency to believe non-living objects have life and feelings just like themselves as a person.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 years to 11 years)

Once children get over the pre-operational stage, they begin to think more logically about objects and events. Children also begin to understand the concept of conservation; although things may change, certain properties remain the same.

They will become less egocentric by this stage and begin to develop sympathy/empathy for others.

Piaget marked this stage as a turning point in a child’s cognitive development as it marks when a child is able to think logically and in an operational manner; they can work things out in their heads.

However, they will still be overwhelmed with abstract or hypothetical problems.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

As opposed to the concrete operational stage, children will develop their ability to comprehend abstract and hypothetical problems such as the future and idealogical problems. They also can finally classify items in a more sophisticated manner rather than underextending or overextending.

They will begin to understand politics, ethics, science fiction, and scientific reasoning as they can think more systematically and create hypotheses.

Formal operation is free from physical and perceptual constraints. They won’t always need specific examples to form an argument.

  • schema — filing system for nouns, disequilibrium, assimilation, equilibrium, labelling

  • comparative adjectives, superlatives

  • peek-a-boo

  • helping a child to label

  • children can still speak fluently despite developmental challenges

CO

CIE A2 Level English: Stages of Child Language Acquisition

The Main Stages of Early Development

Most linguists believe language acquisition in children starts before birth. According to a French study by J. Mehler (1988), French babies as young as 4 days old recognized French and were more interested as opposed to hearing English or Italian.

Before birth

Babies are believed to acquire language before it is even born. It becomes acclimatised to the sounds of its native language.

Babbling (6-12 months)

Before babbling, children will go through biological/vegetative noises (0-2 months), cooing and laughing (2-5 months), and vocal play (5-8 months DURING babbling).

  • during these stages, children will go through various phases of phonological development

    • pre-expansion: where the number of different phonemes produced by a child increases initially

    • phonemic expansion: the number of different phonemes produced increase until about 9 or 10 months

    • phonemic contraction: sounds that are still needed in a child’s native language are kept but everything else is discarded

    • intonation: the change in pitch during babbling/speech which can indicate phrases

In the first year, babies experience the babbling stage from about 6 to 9 months old. This can develop as either reduplicated babbling or variegated babbling.

  • reduplicated babbling: repetition of certain syllables e.g gagaga or googoogoo

  • variegated babbling: babbling of a variety of syllables e.g goo-ga-ba-ga

Caregivers and parents will often speak in ‘caretaker language’.

Caretaker speech has the following observable features:

  • higher intonation

  • repetition

  • limited vocabulary

  • simple grammar

  • recasting

Caretaker language helps children develop the social skills to be able to hold a conversation. This includes spoken language features such as turn-taking and feedback.

Despite not being able to speak properly, children are still able to understand words spoken to them. This is because the comprehension of phonological patterns and meanings develops more quickly than a child’s ability to reproduce them.

Babies can also differentiate between speakers by the age of 3 months, hence why they tend to stop crying when they hear their parents. By 10 months old, they will develop phonemes that are specific to their native language, point and babble in a way that resembles speech on top of recognising repeated phrases.

Holophrastic Stage (1-2 years)

Between the age of 1 and 2 years old, children go through the holophrastic stage. The holophrastic stage includes the one-word stage and the two-word stage.

In the one-word stage, 60% of a child’s utterances at this stage are nouns. It is also at this stage where they begin to develop Michael Halliday’s instrumental and personal functions. Children at this stage may also exhibit errors of:

  • underextension: restricts word application e.g the colour white is used to describe snow but the child can be confused when it hears paper being described with the same word

  • overextension: word application is wider and precise application is misunderstood e.g car can refer to anything with wheels

  • deletion: simplification of pronunciation by deleting of certain sounds

  • substitution: simplification of pronounciation by substituting difficult sounds for easier sounds

  • reduplication: different sounds in a word are pronunced the same way

In the two-word stage, children have a vocaulary of about 50 words. Language is still limited but understanding is wider. No inflections to mark number, person, or tense are used, though children may use pronouns.

Telegraphic Stage (2-3 years)

Children have a huge increase in vocabulary by this stage. They are more logically coherent. They can also understand contrasting concepts.

Utterances at this stage are characterised by their lack of function words such as prepositions, conjunctions, and articles. They will mainly consist of content words.

At around age 3, there is a dramatic change of language, such as:

  • use of conjunctions, mostly ‘and‘, which leads to more complex/compound sentences

  • non-fluency features

Children will engage with two types of child languages: monologues and dialogues.

Monologues occur at around age 2 and children will provide a running commentary. Dialogue occurs during a conversation between a child and another person.

Post-Telegraphic Stage (3-5 years)

At this stage, children’s speech will become more reminiscent of adult speech. Function words will be used alongside content words; contracted forms, verb inflections, and the formation of pronouns become more accurate

By about age 4, a child will speak in perfectly accurate complete sentences.

David Crystal’s Stages of Language Acquisition

David Crystal proposed that children learn language in five stages. These stages often tie in with each other.

Stage 1

This stage can also be referred as part of the holophrastic stage. A child’s first utterances serve 3 purposes:

  • to get someone’s attention

  • to direct attention to something

  • to get what they want

Stage 1 can progress to the two-word stage and making requests.

They will make basic statements such as “daddy car“ or “mummy drink“. They will use intonation as they do not have the full vocabulary to express themselves.

Stage 2

Children begin to ask questions, usually interrogatives such as ‘where‘. This involves Halliday’s heuristic, interactional, and personal functions.

At this stage, children are concerned with the classifying and naming of things; Jean Aitchison’s three stages of vocabulary acquisition (1987) relate to this stage. The three stages of vocabulary acquisition are:

  • labelling - children make the link of a word to objects, people, or experiences that they refer to

  • packaging - children learn the word’s range of meaning → under/overextension

  • networking - children begin to grasp the connections between words including relationships such as hypernyms and hyponyms

Stage 3

Children continue to ask more questions, but they will often be identified as questions through intonation. Sentence structure also becomes more complex e.g “I want mummy [to] take it [to] work“. Children will begin to refer to people’s mental states as well as past tense; their grasp of the future tense is still not developed. They will articulate the changing nature of things.

Stage 4

Children will use more complex sentence structures, which leads to:

  • explanation of things

  • asking for explanations, especially ‘why‘ questions

  • making a wider range of requests

Halliday’s regulatory function is used for questioning, while the personal function is used for discovery.

Children have now developed pragmatics by this stage. They know how to use language to suit the context or situation they are in. Some language features that develop in this stage include:

  • contracted negatives e.g don’t, couldn’t

    • ‘isn’t’ is not developed until later

  • modal auxiliary verbs e.g do, can, will

  • (implied) relative clauses e.g that

Stage 5

Children are able to use language to carry out all their needs, by using Halliday’s seven functions of language, such as:

  • giving information (representational)

  • asking and answering questions (heuristic)

  • requesting (instrumental/regulatory)

  • suggesting (interactional/regulatory

  • offering (interactional)

  • stating intentions (personal)

  • asking intentions of others (interactional)

  • expressing feelings and attitudes (personal function)

  • asking feelings and attitudes of others (interactional)

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence to observe their cognitive development. He came about his theory in the 1920s-30s following his job at the Binet Institute to create French versions of questions on English intelligence tests.

Piaget believed cognitive ability is inborn.

The sequence of stages is universal and always follows the same order. However, children are not guaranteed to follow the stages at the same rate.

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years)

The goal of the sensorimotor stage is object permanence. A baby will focus on physical sensations and body coordination. Other goals of this stage include:

  • self-recognition: determining oneself as separate from others

  • deferred imitation: the repetition of an action based on the action being done previously by another person from an earlier time

  • representational play: engaging with toys or play in a manner that resembles real life, people, and/or actions

As long as a child engages with its environment through physical activities, their language and cognitive development will increase substantially as they realize words can be used to represent objects and feelings.

Pre-Operational Stage (2 years to 7 years)

Children at this stage will begin to think in definitive terms. They can classify objects but still struggle to classify things into sub-sets. However, they will also have an egocentric perspective of the world.

They are still not able to think logically, believing the world for how it looks rather than how it is.

Children will also develop animism, which is the tendency to believe non-living objects have life and feelings just like themselves as a person.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 years to 11 years)

Once children get over the pre-operational stage, they begin to think more logically about objects and events. Children also begin to understand the concept of conservation; although things may change, certain properties remain the same.

They will become less egocentric by this stage and begin to develop sympathy/empathy for others.

Piaget marked this stage as a turning point in a child’s cognitive development as it marks when a child is able to think logically and in an operational manner; they can work things out in their heads.

However, they will still be overwhelmed with abstract or hypothetical problems.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

As opposed to the concrete operational stage, children will develop their ability to comprehend abstract and hypothetical problems such as the future and idealogical problems. They also can finally classify items in a more sophisticated manner rather than underextending or overextending.

They will begin to understand politics, ethics, science fiction, and scientific reasoning as they can think more systematically and create hypotheses.

Formal operation is free from physical and perceptual constraints. They won’t always need specific examples to form an argument.

  • schema — filing system for nouns, disequilibrium, assimilation, equilibrium, labelling

  • comparative adjectives, superlatives

  • peek-a-boo

  • helping a child to label

  • children can still speak fluently despite developmental challenges

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