12 Reconstructive Memory
Reconstructive Memory
Key Questions
Is memory:
Passive retrieval of information from long-term store, or
Active reconstruction?
Do external factors influence the way we remember things?
Can memories change over time?
How are false memories created?
Unreliability of Memory
Schemas influence memory processing at all stages.
According to Anderson and Pichert (1978):
Retrieval may be more difficult if you are not using the right schema.
Reconstructive Memory and Eyewitness Testimony
Recall is an active process that requires conscious effort.
Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted experiments to investigate this.
Experiment 1
45 students were divided into 5 groups.
Participants viewed 7 film recordings of traffic accidents.
Key Question
About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Alternative verbs were used for the word ‘hit.’
Findings from Experiment 1
Response bias:
The way information is presented may suggest how things happened.
Memory change:
The question can cause a change in the subject’s memory representation.
Loftus and Palmer (1974) Experiment 2
150 students watched a film of a multiple-car accident.
Participants split into three groups:
"Smashed into each other"
"Hit each other"
Control group
One week later, participants filled out a questionnaire without re-watching the film.
Findings from Experiment 2
Critical question: "Did you see any broken glass?"
Responses:
"Yes" was 32% when "smashed" was used, 14% for "hit," and 12% in the control group.
This indicated an actual change in memory, not just response bias!
Other Findings
Loftus and Palmer suggested that memory for some complex events is based on two types of information:
Information perceived during the event
External post-event information
These types of information are integrated, making it difficult to distinguish between them.
Important Note About Schemas
The verb “smashed” activates a schema for severe car accidents.
Memory is reconstructed through the lens of this schema.
Misleading Information, Recognition, and Visual Memory
In Loftus and Palmer's study:
Post-event information was verbal, and responses were verbal.
Visual and verbal information might be stored separately.
Leading questions may interfere with verbal storage but not visual memory.
Eyewitness Testimony
Often involves recognition rather than recall.
Post-event information can be misleading and aggressive.
Loftus, Miller, and Burns (1978)
Explored how verbal information supplied after an event influences a witness’s visual memory.
Study involved 195 students shown a red Datsun with either a stop sign or yield sign.
Experiment Details
The Datsun hit a pedestrian.
The critical question:
"Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign?"
Different groups received varied sign information (stop vs yield).
Results
41% accurate recall for misleading post-event information; 75% accurate recall for consistent information.
Misleading info's effect strengthens with time from the original event.
Criticism of Loftus, Miller, and Burns (1978)
McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985) suggested bias in responses may explain the results, not a change in memory.
McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985)
Argued that misleading information didn't affect original memory.
Some participants forgot details, and narratives filled in the gaps.
When misleading options were removed, no difference in performance compared to control group.
Memory Change or Response Bias?
Payne, Toglia, and Anastasi (1994):
Conducted a meta-analysis of 44 studies.
Misinformation effect present even in modified recognition tests, though not robust.
Longer retention intervals increased misinformation effects.
Further Reading and Concepts
Yuille and Cutshall (1986):
Study with crime witnesses.
Flashbulb Memories: Topics for deeper exploration.
Key Questions (Revisit)
Is memory Passive retrieval of information from long-term store, or active reconstruction?
Do external factors influence the way we remember things?
Can memories change over time?
How are false memories created?