AP World History Semester 2

Part 5: The European Moment in World History, 1750-1900

Chapter 16: Atlantic Revolutions, Global Echoes 1750-1900

Landmarks for Chapter 16

the Haitian revolution was a part of and linked to many large revolutions in the Atlantic 1775 to 1825

• inspired from earlier North American + French, inspired following Latin American communities

• reflects connections across continents as a result of European voyages and conquests

Atlantic Revolutions in a Global Context

from early 18th to mid 19th century, many parts of the world experienced large upheavals, even noted by Voltaire

• Safavids collapsed, Mughals fragmented, Wahhabism threatened Ottomans and influenced Central Asia

• Catherine the Great faced many peasant rebellions led by Cossacks, attempting to end serfdom

• Chinese unsuccessful rebellions

• Islamic Revolutions of West Africa, mfecane of South Africa

Atlantic revolutions of north america, france, haiti, latin america took place with a larger global framework

• in the context of costly wars (esp Britain and French → British levied taxes, French wants new revenue), weakening states, destabilizing process of commercialization

distinctive bc of their interconnectedness

• Thomas Jefferson on diplomatic missions to France to advise revolutionaries

• Simon Bolivar visited Haiti twice before Latin American revolts

shared common ideas as atlantic became basin of intellectual and cultural exchange

• European Enlightenment ideals shared via newspapers, pamphlets

  • human and political and social arrangements can be improved by humans

  • divine right, state control, aristocracy privilege

• ideas of liberty, equality, free trade, religious tolerance, republicanism, rationality, popular sovereignty

controversy among enlightenment ideals

• whats the best govt, extent of liberty, etc.

• discussion of these ideas later influenced minorities

• intent to extend political rights further than before → democratic revolutions

big global impact beyond atlantic

• france invasions of egypt, germany, poland, russia brought ideas there

• extension of ideas to abolish slavery, extend voting rights, writing constitutions

• nationalism developed in atlantic revolutions

• human equality ideas influenced feminism, socialism, communism

• Arab Spring example

Comparing Atlantic Revolutions

revolutions substantially diff from each other

• diff political and social tensions + varied outcomes

The North American Revolution, 1775-1787

american revolution: Successful rebellion against British rule conducted by the European settlers in the thirteen colonies of British North America, starting in 1776; a conservative revolution whose success preserved property rights and class distinctions but established republican government in place of monarchy

• military victory 1781, federal constitution 1787 → new nation

breaking with britain → political change but also conservative by preserving existing liberties of colonies, rather than creating new ones

• british colonies had considerable local autonomy while British had its own separate battles

• West indies more profitable

• local elected assemblies (rich property men) had close self-govt → autonomy is birthright and English heritage

• before revolution, nb thought breaking away would be bad because of advantages like war protection, british market access, and Englishmen identity

many differences bw Englishmen in Britain and North America

• real, visible class distinctions, small class of wealthy gentlemen

• ready availability of land, scarcity of people, absence of titled nobility and single established church → more open social life

• no legal distinctions

• free men enjoyed same status before the law → less poverty, more economic opportunities, less social differences, easier class relationships

sudden unexpected effort of british govt to control colonies and extract more revenue sparked the revolution

• British debt increased → stopped overlooking, imposed new taxes and tariffs without consent

• colonists pissed bc challenged economic interests, local autonomy, Englishmen identity

• popular sovereignty, natural rights, consent of govt → war → won in 1781 with help From french

the revolutionary part is the kind of society already emerged in the colonies

• independent not accompanied by social transformation

• accelerated established democratic tendencies of colonial societies

• elites maintained political authority, but lower property requirements for voting + more modest white men elected to state legislatures

eroded power of traditional gentlemen, but not for POC or women

• land only seized from fled British Loyalists

• property rights unchanged by revolution; North abolitionists, South maintained slavery

• most democratic country → gradual working out of a reformist fashion of earlier practices and Declaration of independence equality

american revolution as a model for political change

• seen as creating a “new order for the ages,” praised by james madison and international observers

• inspired revolutionary movements worldwide, from simón bolívar to ho chi minh

• u.s. constitution applied enlightenment ideas through bill of rights, checks and balances, separation of church and state, and federalism

The French Revolution, 1789-1815

thousands of frenchmen assisted american colonists, came back home with republican enthusiasm

• french almost bankrupt + long sought reforms to modernize tax system for more equity

• Louis XVI called Estates General to raise taxes against opposition of privileged classes → third assembly made their own national Assembly in 1789

• declaration of the rights of man and citizen: Charter of political liberties, drawn up by the French National Assembly in 1789, that proclaimed the equal rights of all male citizens; the declaration gave expression to the essential outlook of the French Revolution and became the preamble to the French constitution completed in 1791

• french revolution: Massive upheaval of French society (1789–1815) that overthrew the monarchy, ended the legal privileges of the nobility, and for a time outlawed the Catholic Church. The French Revolution proceeded in stages, becoming increasingly radical and violent until the period known as the Terror in 1793–1794, after which it became more conservative, especially under Napoleon Bonaparte

quite different from American revolution → driven by sharp conflicts within French society

• nobility hated monarchy’s efforts to tax them; educated middle-class offended by privileges of aristocracy

• peasants bore all the taxes, work, dues, servitude

• Enlightenment ideas reached Third Estate → articulated grievances

much more violent, radical, far-reaching revolution initially

• initial efforts for constitutional monarchy and promote harmony gave way to more radical measures like internal resistance and foreign opposition

• insurrections, burning owners property and documents, National Assembly decreed end of all legal privileges and feudalism

• church land for revenue, priests under govt authority

Louis XVI and Antoinette executed, shocked traditionalists

• Terror of 1793-1794

• Robespierre: Leader of the French Revolution during the Terror; his Committee of Public Safety executed tens of thousands of enemies of the revolution until he was arrested and guillotined

• later executed and accused of tyranny

french revolution and creation of a new society

• revolutionaries sought a complete break from the past, introducing a new calendar and republic

• administrative reforms included eighty-three departments with new names and universal male suffrage (briefly)

• mass citizen army of 800,000 men, led by middle- and lower-class officers, required service from all adult males

raise the question of female political equality more than american revolution

• more active in revolution → storming of Bastille, march on Versailles

women’s political activism during the french revolution

• women petitioned on issues like education, economic inequality, prostitution, and rising prices

• over sixty women’s clubs formed, including the Cercle Social advocating for legal and social equality

• figures like olympe de gouges demanded women’s rights using language from the declaration of the rights of man

resistance to women’s political participation during the french revolution

• men across political lines defended male privileges, banning all women’s clubs in 1793

• women were portrayed as incapable of serious political thought and labeled “denatured viragos” if they tried

• despite exclusion, the revolution sparked debate on women’s rights, laying groundwork for modern feminism

social and cultural changes from the french revolution

• public life transformed: streets renamed, monuments destroyed, titles abolished, citizens addressed each other as “citizen”

• ordinary people participated in politics through clubs, demonstrations, committees, and elections

• national identity grew as the state replaced the church for vital records and revolutionary festivals replaced church holidays

symbolic acts and rituals of radical revolution

• revolutionary leaders used public ceremonies to signal new beginnings and limitless possibilities

• festival of unity in 1793: burned royal crowns and scepters, released 3,000 white doves

• cathedral of notre dame converted into temple of reason, blending church music with enlightenment ideals

differences in spread of influence

• american → revolution and constitution; French → conquest under Napoleon Bonaparte: French head of state and general (r. 1799–1815); Napoleon preserved much of the French Revolution under a military dictatorship and was responsible for the spread of revolutionary ideals through his conquest of much of Europe

• preserved moderate elements like civil equality, secular law code, religious freedom, merit, but reconciled with Catholic Church and suppressed democratic elements → social equality, less liberty

napoleon and the spread of revolutionary reforms

• napoleon’s military campaigns created the largest european empire since rome

• imposed reforms: ended feudalism, promoted equality of rights, religious toleration, codified laws, rationalized administration

• reforms met with both acceptance and resistance, fueling nationalism and eventually leading to napoleon’s defeat by 1815

The Haitian Revolution, 1791-1804

French Revolution heavily influenced this revolution in Saint Domingue

• super rich colony, bunch of coffee and sugar plantations

• grands blancs, petits blancs, gens de couleur libres, et slaves

• lots of inequalities and exploitation

principles of revolution varied for each class

• grands blancs were rich white landowners → suggested greater autonomy and less economic restrictions, not blacks

• petits blancs (detested) → equality of citizenship for all whites, not blacks

• slaves → personal freedom, break slave system

• 1791 revolt → rumors that French king ended slavery, so slaves burned plantations and killed their owners

classes fought each other

• english and spanish took advantage to trade and stuff

• Toussaint Louverture led the large power slaves accumulated → overcame internal resistance, outplayed foreigns, defeated Napoleon’s attempt to control

became the only completely successful slave revolt

• socially → slaves now became free, equal citizens

• politically → no french, 2nd independent republic in americas, 1st non-european state from western colonialism

• Haiti → mountainous and rugged, break from Europe and reconnect with natives

• formal independence declared jan 1, 1804

  • all citizens “black”, equal regardless of colors or class, most whites fled and killed

• economically → plantation system destroyed, land redistributed to people of color → small-scale subsistence farmers

Haitian Revolution: The only fully successful slave rebellion in world history; the uprising in the French Caribbean colony of Saint Domingue (later renamed Haiti, which means “mountainous” or “rugged” in the native Taino language) was sparked by the French Revolution and led to the establishment of an independent state after a long and bloody war (1791–1804). Its first leader was Toussaint Louverture, a former slave

• poverty, authoritarian, unstable politics; freedom = end of slavery, not really all equal rights

• independence debt → financial burden

• immense fear → songs and word of this revolution scared other slaveowners, inspired other slave rebellions, African pride

whites → “Remember Haiti” = deep caution with political change, social conservatism

• temporary expansion of slavery → increased cuban production

• napoleon lost → sold louisiana purchase, slave states

• didn’t lead to independent caribbean colonies

Latin American Revolutions, 1808-1825

latin american revolutions: Series of risings in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of Latin America (1808–1825) that established the independence of new states from European rule but that for the most part retained the privileges of the elites despite efforts at more radical social change by the lower classes

• native born elites hated Spanish monarchy’s efforts to exercise more power + taxes

• popular sovereignty, republican government, personal liberty ideals

• initially scattered uncoordinated protests, not war or independence

authoritarian governance, sharp class divisions

• whites outnumbered by natives, africans, mixed

• inhibited independence movements

creole elites didn’t really spark a revolution

• Napoleon took Spain and Portugal in 1808 → Latin America took action, established independent states by 1826, but in a unique way

lasted so long bc class race region divisions

• NA → mostly against british, not very many loyalist disputes

• Mexico 1810-1811: peasant insurrection bc hungry + expensive food and land → led by priests Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Morelos

• Hidalgo-Morelos rebellion: Socially radical peasant rebellion in Mexico (1810) led by the priests Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos

  • raised army, crushed insurgency, them and creole elites brought socially controlled mexico by 1821

great fear of haitian revolution

• elites knew it could be a danger if out of hand

• tupac amaru: Leader of a Native American rebellion in Peru in the early 1780s, claiming the last Inca emperor as an ancestor

  • reminded whites they sat on top of an explosive society of oppressed poc

creole sponsors of independence movements and regional military leader Bolivar and Martin knew they needed the people to win against Spain

• nativism (everyone born in Ameircas) vs. everyone born in spain and portugal; differences in identities

• mobilized POC w promises of freedom, no legal restrictions, social advancement → lots of liberals

• not many promises met, lower classes little benefited

women didn’t gain much despite participating bunch

• upperclass → raised money, safe havens, disguised as men to fight

• lower class → cooked food, women’s brigade of supplies

• considerable amt punished for disloyalty by crown

• San Martin, general of argentina, recognized women, gave more educational opportunities; women politically excluded, legal controlled by men

another difference: inability to united all states together

• distance + geographic obstacles + deep rooted identities → bad communication in NA

• Bolivar js said latin america is ungovernable

aftermath of latin american independence marked reversal in earlier relationship of two american continents

• US went from rags to riches, stable, democratic, industrialized

• spanish colonies started wealthy and sophisticated and promising

  • became underdeveloped, poor, dependent

Echoes of Revolution

echoes of revolution lasted longer than themselves

• british lost NA → growing interest in asia, colonial india and chinese opium wars

• napoleon in egypt → stimulated western reforms to ottomans

• constitutional ideas → poland, russia, china, etc.

small revolution eruptions in 1830, big 1848, paris 1870

• republicanism, social equality, national liberation from foreign rule

• pressured western europe, usa, argentina to enlarge voting publics, universal male suffrage by 1914

• constitutional regime revolt in 1825 failed, but marked revolutionary tradition in russia

• these movements made central europeans feel asleep

3 major movements arose to challenge tradition: abolition, nationalism for unity and independence from foreign, and feminism

The Abolition of Slavery

slavery, after practically the beginning of human civilization, lost legitimacy and basically ended

enlightenment thinkers believe slavery opposes natural rights of everyone, and liberty and equality of french and americans shed light to this

• quakers, then protestant evangelicals, believed it was haram

• slavery not essential to economic progress, considering new england was prosperous → unnecessary to new industrialization and capitalism

• moral virtue + economic joined to make an attractive argument, and slave actions also played a part → haitian revolution, 3 major west indie rebellions

• great jamaica revolt: Slave rebellion in the British West Indies (1831–1832) inspired by the Haitian Revolution, in which around 60,000 slaves attacked several hundred plantations; the discontent of the slaves and the brutality of the British response helped sway the British public to support the abolition of slavery

abolitionist movement: An international movement that condemned slavery as morally repugnant and contributed much to ending slavery in the Western world during the nineteenth century; the movement was especially prominent in Britain and the United States beginning in the late eighteenth century

• middle and working class support → pamphlets describing horrific slavery, parliament petitions, lawsuits, boycotting slave sugar

• testimonies of africans; 1804 british stopped selling slaves in empire, 1834 emancipation, most latin american banned slavery by 1850

• rebellion, economic inefficiency, moral concerns convinced tsar to free serfs 1861

not easily, as slave economies still flourished into 19th century, plantation owners against abolitionist attacks

• slave traders moved to brazil and cuba, west africans confused why they switched up

• persistence of slavery profound in southern usa → 1861-1865 civil war

end of atlantic slavery marked major rapid turn in world social history and moral thinking

• outcomes r far and surprising from abolitionists expectations

  • economic lives of former slaves didnt really improve, rare distribution of land, sought economic autonomy on their land, sharecropping

• slaves dont wanna be near plantations → labor shortages, global migration

  • indentured servants from india/china imported to americas to work on mines, plantations, etc.

new freed people didn’t get political equality, except in haiti

• radical reconstruction → free blacks enjoyed some freedom and political power → jim crow laws

• end of serfdom → got some land, paid with redemption dues

closing of external slave → decreased price of slaves, used more in african socieities

• colonial rule on africa → loudly proclaimed end of slavery

slavery long practiced in islam, great symbol of piety to free a slave

• muslims argued against slavery on Qur’an’s equality, but didn’t grassroot abolition movements

Nations and Nationalism

new kind of human community - nation

• atlantic revolutions helped popularize the idea of nations with shared culture territory and political independence

• historically most states and empires ruled over culturally diverse populations rather than single peoples

• earlier identities and loyalties were mainly local religious or ethno-linguistic and rarely formed lasting states

atlantic revolutions and the rise of national sovereignty

• independence movements framed political change as the creation of new nations

• french revolution shifted sovereignty from rulers to the people

• mass mobilization and conscription linked citizens to defense of the nation

nationalism as a new form of political loyalty

• napoleonic conquests provoked national resistance across europe

• people increasingly identified as citizens of nations rather than subjects of dynasties

• shared culture experience and perceived common bonds defined this new loyalty

nationalism: The focusing of citizens’ loyalty on the notion that they are part of a “nation” with a unique culture, territory, and common experience, which merits an independent political life; first became a prominent element of political culture in nineteenth-century Europe and the Americas

• modernization weakened religious and local loyalties through science migration and urbanization

• print culture standardized languages and fostered shared linguistic identities

• national identities were constructed using older cultural traditions and collective memories

political impact and spread of nationalism in the nineteenth century

• nationalism enabled unification of fragmented peoples into new states like italy and germany

• subject peoples used nationalism to demand independence or autonomy from empires

• nationalist ideas spread to minority and persecuted groups including jews through zionism

nationalism and international conflict

• popular nationalism intensified rivalries among european states

• nationalist competition contributed to imperial expansion and world war i

• nationalism also fueled major wars in the americas with devastating consequences

state promotion of nationalism and its limits

• governments used education media rituals and military service to build national loyalty

• policies often enforced dominant national languages and cultures

• such efforts sometimes strengthened minority nationalisms instead

ideological variations and debates within nationalism

• civic nationalism linked the nation to territory citizenship and political participation

• ethnic or racial nationalism defined the nation by ancestry and excluded outsiders

• nationalism was used by different ideologies and sparked disputes over belonging and representation

spread of nationalism beyond europe in the nineteenth century

• anti imperial pressures encouraged nationalist movements in asia and africa

• western educated elites articulated early national identities in colonized societies

• most non european nationalisms gained mass support only in the twentieth century

Feminist Beginnings

emergence of organized feminist movements

• first substantial challenges to patriarchy appeared after the french revolution

• nineteenth century saw the development of organized feminist movements in europe and north america

• twentieth century feminism transformed nearly all aspects of social political and personal life

enlightenment and revolutionary roots of feminism

• enlightenment thinkers occasionally challenged the idea of women’s inferiority

• french revolution opened space to question traditional social hierarchies

• early feminist writers like wollstonecraft argued for women’s inclusion in liberty and equality

• vindication of the rights of women: Written by Mary Wollstonecraft, this tract was one of the earliest expressions of feminist consciousness

social foundations and early organized feminism

• middle-class women gained education and partial freedom from household work

• women engaged in reform movements and working-class women joined unions

• early feminist activism culminated in seneca falls convention asserting equality of men and women

• elizabeth cady stanton: Leading figure of the early women’s rights movement in the United States. At the first Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848, she drafted a statement paraphrasing the Declaration of Independence, stating that men and women were created equal

transatlantic feminism and radical reforms

• european and american women collaborated through conferences correspondence and publications

• major goals included access to education professions and social freedoms

• some feminists pursued radical cultural and religious challenges to traditional gender roles

early achievements and limits of women’s rights

• women gained access to education professions property rights and some legal reforms

• nursing and social work became prominent female professions

• political rights advanced slowly with suffrage achieved first in new zealand and finland, later elsewhere

cultural and ideological debates within feminism

• the movement sparked public debate on women’s roles and challenged social norms, as in ibsen’s a doll’s house

• taboo topics like sexuality birth control and gender equality entered discourse

• feminists disagreed on foundations of rights: universal equality versus maternal or gender-specific roles

• maternal feminism: Movement that claimed that women have value in society not because of an abstract notion of equality but because women have a distinctive and vital role as mothers; its exponents argued that women have the right to intervene in civil and political life because of their duty to watch over the future of their children

opposition to feminism and societal anxieties

• critics claimed women’s education and public life threatened reproduction and family stability

• feminists were portrayed as selfish or alien to national interests

• public debate over women’s roles was unprecedented in western history after the atlantic revolutions’

global spread of feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

• feminist initiatives appeared in latin america japan russia china and the islamic world

• modernizing states sometimes supported women’s education as a national development strategy, but often restricted political activity

• symbolic acts and organizations, like huda sharawi in egypt, inspired broader participation

Chapter 19: Empires in Collision: Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia 1800-1900

Reversal of Fortune: China’s Century of Crisis

Chinese emperor Qianlong rejected trade w British bc they think they r alrdy well off → patterns of limiting European missionaries and merchants

• 1912 → imperial state collapsed; went from central place in global economy to weak dependent participant, GB controlled

The Crisis Within

robust economy and american food crops meant huge population growth

• no industrial revolution or agricultural production increase to keep up, no expansion resources

• pressure on land, smaller farms, tm peasants, unemployment, misery, starvation

states increasingly ineffective w managing tax collection, flood control, social welfare, public security

• european military and economic pressure disrupted internal trade routes, more unemployment, huge peasant taxes

declining dynasty → more bandits, super dangerous and peasant rebellions

• rebellions based on grievances, hated Qing bc of foreign Manchus

Taiping Uprising: Massive Chinese rebellion against the ruling Qing dynasty that devastated much of the country between 1850 and 1864; it was based on the millenarian teachings of Hong Xiuquan

• rejected chinese philosophy, embraced form of Christianity - want REVOLUTIONARY change, not return to idealized state

• abolish private property, redistribute land, end prostitution and opium, organize society into military camps of men and women

• planned developed china - railroads, health insurance, newspaper, public education

notably, women’s rights were pursued

• Hakka women less Confucian - no binding

• women could have equal shares of land, sit for civil service exams, controlled other women, love marriage

inconsistent and ambivalent reforms for women in practice

• intended traditional elite women power, but still, challenged long-lasting traditions of women’s roles

Taiping forces established Nanjing capital in 1853

• divisions within Taiping allowed Qing to crush peasant rebellions + western Qing-pro forces by provincal military leaders w their own armies

Qing saved, but weakened as provincial gentry consolidated power at expense of state

• delay in change for peasants, women, modernization

• lots of death and disruption

Western Pressures

opium wars: Two wars fought between Western powers and China (1840–1842 and 1856–1858) after China tried to restrict the importation of foreign goods, especially opium; China lost both wars and was forced to make major concessions

• British used to illegally cover import imbalance

chinese notice a problem

• opium importing is illegal - smuggling, but sm corrupted officials + paying silver for all this opium made china less attractive to the world now

• everyone drugged and unable to work

• commissioner Lin Zexu: Royal official charged with ending the opium trade in China; his concerted efforts to seize and destroy opium imports provoked the Opium Wars

  • british sent naval mission to China to stop restricting trade w them and teach them a lesson

  • war ended w Treaty of Nanjing 1842 on British terms

• unequal treaties: Series of nineteenth-century treaties in which China made major concessions to Western powers

second opium war vandalized Beijing Summer Palace

• foreigners accessed ports, traveled freely, bought chinese land, preached christianity, patrolled rivers; can’t call anyone barbarians

• lost control of taiwan, vietnam, korea

• Japan and Russia and Western nations made spheres of influence and made military bases, extracted materials, built railroads

informal empire: Term commonly used to describe areas that were dominated by Western powers in the nineteenth century but retained their own governments and a measure of independence (e.g., China)

• Qing held power but weakened; inhibited Chinese industrialization bc foreign goods and investments came unrestrictedly

• businessmen served foreign firms instead of developing independent capital class for industrial revolution

The Failure of Conservative Modernization

self-strengthening: China’s program of internal reform in the 1860s and 1870s, based on vigorous application of traditional principles and limited borrowing from the West

• overhauled exam system, “good men” to cope w reconstruction

• supporting landlords and canals helped restore rural social economic order, some factories for textiles and steel, coal mines, telegraph

inhibited by fears of conservative leaders that it’d strip elite of power + new industries dependent on foreigners for machines n stuff meant control to local authority, not central

Boxer Uprising: Antiforeign movement (1898–1901) led by Chinese militia organizations, in which large numbers of Europeans and Chinese Christians were killed. It resulted in military intervention by Western powers and the imposition of a huge payment as punishment

growing number of educated chinese hated Qing dynasty and made organizations, clubs, newspapers to explore new paths

• National Rejuvenation Study Society (example) - admired western science, tech, and politics - limited authority n expanding public life

• rulers and the ruled unite against China to save from imperialism

• Qiu Jin and others argued for women to be liberated to help unify china

• Chinese nationalism!

Qing dynasty could not respond to these pressures well

• progressive imperial edicts - 1898 Hundred Days of Reform, squelched by conservative forces

• ended old exam system and promised new parliament, but too late

• 1912 - last chinese emperor abdicated even w small nudge from revolutionaries

• Chinese Revolution of 1911-1912: The collapse of China’s imperial order, officially at the hands of organized revolutionaries but for the most part under the weight of the troubles that had overwhelmed the imperial government for the previous century

The Japanese Difference: The Rise of a New East Asian Power

Matthew Perry introduced Japan to the West in 1853 to force them to actually normally interact with the rest of the world

• “revolution from above” turned Japan into a powerhouse - modern, united, industrialized, unlike china or ottomans

• made its own empire at chinese korean expense

• japanese modernity, not european modernity

The Tokugawa Background

prior to perry, shogun from Tokugawa ruled - main goal = prevent civil war of feudal lords (daimyos) with armed samurai

shoguns typically have 2 centuries of internal peace

• control daimyo → authorities had second homes in capital Edo to protect themselves

• daimyos often acted like independent entities - own law, tax, currencies

• Tokugawa Japan: A period of internal peace in Japan (1600–1850) that prevented civil war but did not fully unify the country; led by military rulers, or shoguns, from the Tokugawa family, who established a “closed door” policy toward European encroachments of the troubles that had overwhelmed the imperial government for the previous century

• highly detailed rules dictating every aspect of their life - samurai, peasants, artisans, merchants

samurai loyal to daimyo and warrior code, but evolved into the salaried bureaucratic/administrative class

long-term peace of Tokugawa Japan paved industrial growth = more economic growth, commercialization, urban development

• new innovations → grew more rice, rural manufacturing enterprise

• became most urbanized country in 1750s - Edo large city

• good networks bw rural and urban areas = more trade, emerging market economy

• Confucianism influenced literacy

undermined shogun’s efforts to freeze japanese society for stability

• samurai began renouncing status and pledge to fight

• merchants started prospering financially despite low status

• samurai enjoyed high status, hated debts to merchants

peasants moved to city and became artisans/merchants

• started ignoring rules for clothing and behavior → issued decrees to ban peasants from luxuries, live simply, and farm

widespread corruption showed shogunate was starting to lose control

• severe famine in 1830s → shogunate responded bad → people distrust

• lots of riots of the poor

• eat the rich

American Intrusion and the Meiji Restoration

foreign intervention catalyzed the process

• since expulsion of christian missionaries, japan significantly reduced interactions with west (only one trading port - Dutch)

• europe and USA knocked on their door, japan said go away

• Commodore Perry 1853 demanded human treatment, rights for provisions, and ports w Japan - used force, gifts, or surrender flag

  • nine coal-fired steamships emitted black smoke, people, and cannons - black ships, depicted “warships”

avoided war by agreeing to series of unequal treaties

• humiliating acceptance of foreign devils led more distrust in shogunate → civil war

• Meiji Restoration: The political takeover of Japan in 1868 by a group of young samurai from southern Japan. The samurai eliminated the shogun and claimed they were restoring to power the young emperor, Meiji (Enlightened RUle). The new government was committed to saving Japan from foreign domination by drawing upon what the modern West had to offer to transform Japanese society. (pron. MAY-jee)

got government commitment to break from past without massive violence

• less appealing to Western powers (China had large markets and riches, Ottomans had strategic location)

• US civil war deflected attention from Japan, reducing western pressure

Modernization Japanese-Style

new rulers took advantage of this opportunity to breathe

• successful, radical dramatic waves of changes in defense/out of fear of japanese independence

genuine national unity achieved by replace daimyo with governors for national govt

• central state collected taxes and raised army w ppl from all classes

samurai relinquished role as warrior class

• no class social privileges - all commoners n subjects r equal

• limits on trade and travel

• overall, peaceful transition where rulers gave up their privileges bc empathized w army administration and businesses of new regime

widespread fascination with everything Western

• science, tech, social institutions, culture - sent students and officials to the West to study and learn

• Yukichi Fukuzawa - prominent supporter of Western knowledge bc Japan was behind and needed to learn “An Encouragement of Learning”

• “Civilization and Enlightenment”

initially no criticism for wave of westernization, but now, started carefully selecting stuff

• Constitution of 1889 similar to German experience - parliament, political parties, democratic ideals but gift from emperor from sun goddess

• parliament advises, but emperor and oligarchy control ultimate power and military

• new education system (universal primary education) had some confucian teachings

• Shinto - official state cult, less Christianity

• similar to how they selectively chose stuff from china

many argued that oppression of women was an obstacle to modernization + family reform needed for Western respect

• Fukuzawa emphasized rights for women - education, gender equality in marriage divorce property, no prostitution; still most ppl believed “good wife, wise mother'“

• small feminist movement for women to enter public life - Kishida Toshiko’s equality tours

included girls for universal education, but segregated genders and made them learn diff stuff

• harshly against women in public life - Peace Preservation Law of 1887 until 1922 forbade women from joining political parties n politic discussions

• Civil Code of 1898 made man head of family and women as dependent

defensive modernization emerged from state-guided industrialized programs initially establishing enterprises then later selling to private companies

• modern infrastructure, postal service, national currency, banking system

• relied more on country’s abundant workforce than machine replacement

• zaibatsu - large business firms

• exported lots of textiles to compensate for imports, later produced its own industrial goods

• newspapers, movie theaters, electric lights

• own resources, no massive foreign debt

peasants slid to poverty bc heavy taxes to pay for new modernizing program

• violent protests - infanticide, selling daughters, starvation

still needed female labor in textile industry for economic growth

• got rural women to work at textile factories, but low pay and bad working conditions

• suicide, ran away, strikes among anarchist and socialist intellectuals

• companies seen as family unit - so unions and riots r badly suppressed

Japan and the World

economic growth, openness to trade, and civilization and enlightenment encouraged western powers to revise unequal treaties

• Anglo-Japanese Treaty 1902 acknowledged japan as an equal large player

new-empire building franchise like other powers to compensate lack of resources

• war against China - replaced them as a strong military competitor

• Russo-Japanese War: Fought over rival ambitions in Korea and Manchuria, this conflict ended in a Japanese victory, establishing Japan as a formidable military competitor in East Asia. The war marked the first time that an Asian country defeated a European power in battle, and it precipitated the Russian Revolution of 1905

  • Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria

viewed as economic, political, military competitor by the West - shocked Russians, another imperialist power against China

rise of Japan and defeat of Russia inspired awe and hope against imperialism

• poles finns jews saw this as hope for liberation from russia

• chinese reformers saw valuable lessons

• islamic world praised them; turkish gave japanese names; indonesians asked Meiji for help against dutch + wrote odes in his honor

those imperialized, like taiwan and korea and southeast asia, obviously hated the brutality of the japanese

• Japan = liberator from Europe and oppressive imperial power → remarkable modern transformation, unique reaction to western provocation

Part 6: The Long Twentieth Century, 1900-Present

Chapter 20: Milestones of the Past Century: War and Revolution 1900-1950

The First World War: A European Crisis with a Global Impact, 1914-1918

since 1500, Europe has an increased presence on the global stage

• military, colonial empires, scientific + industrial revolution → European nationalism

Origins: The Beginnings of the Great War

despite europe’s modern transformation and global ascendity, there was not growing unity nor stability

• Italy and Germany, in ~1870, unified their historically fragmented territories

• germany was esp disruptive to established powers like britain bc it wanted to establish its prestige

• concert of europe maintained peace, but eventually, balance of power distributed into Triple Alliance (germany, italy, austria-hungary) and Triple Entente (British, Russia, France)

On June 28, 1914, heir to austro-hungarian throne archduke franz ferdinand was assassinated by a serbian nationalist

• surging nationalism of serbian slavs was big threat to their fragile multinational empire and determined to crush it

• however, russia was behind serbia and would protect slavics w/ french and british

• these systems of alliances for peace prompted war

World War I: The “Great War” (1914–1918), in essence a European civil war with a global reach that was marked by massive casualties, trench warfare, and mobilization of entire populations. It triggered the Russian Revolution, led to widespread disillusionment among intellectuals, and rearranged the political map of Eastern Europe and the Middle East

• nationalism also played a part in this “accidental” war → world = competition of nation states, convinced national identities r great via propaganda

• public pressure → men go to war without complaint, eager, think it’ll be quick

• conservatives: war = chance for national unity amid domestic class and gender conflicts

another factor: growing industrialized militarism

• europe ensured their soldiers were proud and wore their uniforms everyday

• huge standing armies other than british (conscription army)

• developed elaborate war plans → countries have incentives to strike first and follow their plan

• new weapons: submarines, tanks, airplanes, machine guns, barbed wire, poison gas contribute to staggering deaths and injuries

europe’s imperial reach also impacted the war

• funneled hundred thousands of colonial soldiers and laborers

• British and French seized German African colonies, Japan and British took German stuff in China

• Arab revolt against ottoman turkish control

• US intervened after Zimmermann telegram was intercepted (thanks British) bw Germany and Mexico

Outcomes: Legacies of the Great War

thought boys would be home before christmas, lasted 4 yrs til germans lost nov 1918

• total war: War that requires each country involved to mobilize its entire population in the effort to defeat the enemy

• government authority increased → German war socialism

• propaganda campaigns against atrocities over rivals

• labor unions suspended strikes and women replaced men’s jobs, forgetting abt suffrage

lots of long-term conflicts other than huge deaths of wealthy and well-educated + destruction

• disillusionment among intellectuals - mocked “Enlightenment” progress and so called superiority of the West, was there tech acc good?

substantial social and cultural changes to Europeans and Americans

• women back to their og jobs cs cant compete with og men

• still, more social mobility to higher positions, regained popular suffrage movements

• young middle class women (flappers, or baddies) start living

• tech innovations, mass production, mass consumerism for home appliances like washing machines and ovens

• radio and jazz = popular entertainment

• American celebrities → international fame

transformed international political life

• new map of Central Europe - Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, national self determination (Woodrow Wilson) → ethnicities minorities dissatified

• treaty of versailles: The 1919 treaty that officially ended World War I; the immense penalties it placed on Germany are regarded as one of the causes of World War II

  • germany loses all colonies, some european territory, cut its military, take responsibility of war

profound changes beyond Europe

• Ottomans ethnically cleansed Armenians (deported/massacred) bc suspect allies with Russians → ended Ottoman empire, new map of Middle East: turkey, syria, iraq, transjordan, palestine

• Arabs ruled by British/French bc of “League of Nations;” conflicting British promises to Jews for Palestine

• Asians and Africans gained new military skills and less respect for their leaders and expected better treatment

• Japan supported by Europe to take Germany and China

• young revolutionary Chinese nationalists hate arrogant imperialists

United States became a central global power

• manpower defeated Germany, financial resources = Europe’s creditor

• Woodrow Wilson loved - Fourteen Point: international diplomacy and peace, no secret deals/imperialism

• proposed League of Nations → international peace organization was “collective security”, but his vision failed bc

  • Germany was treated harshly than expected, national self-determination in multiethnic states is hard, hopes for freedom was not viable in all colonies

• US Senate refused to join league in 1920 bc dont wanna bow to other nations, weakening League of Nations

The Russian Revolution and Soviet Communism

one of the most significant outcomes was the beginning of communism

• rooted in Karl Marx’s socialism; European socialists believed goals could be done peacefully and democratically, but not russia

• russian socialists advocated radical overthrow

russian revolution: Massive revolutionary upheaval in 1917 that overthrew the Romanov dynasty in Russia and ended with the seizure of power by communists under the leadership of Lenin

• workers and wives of soldiers took to streets and protested against elites → demonstrations, newspapers, revolution

• early 1917 → Nicholas II lost all support, forced to abdicate, ended Romanov

• provisional govt by various party leaders

massive social upheaval

• ordinary soldiers hate treatment → desert

• industrial centers like petersburg and moscow → trade unions defended workers interests and workers controlled factories

• soviets emerged from worker/soldier organizations to speak for the people

• peasants burned lords and claimed land for themselves

social party, Bolsheviks, seized power by end of 1917

• Lenin: Born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, leader of the Russian Bolshevik (later Communist) Party in 1917, when it seized power

3 year civil war Bolsheviks → Communists battle former elites, tame socialists, nationalist forces and troops from japan and western

• staggered to victory 1921 bc opponents were divided

• USSR formed - Union of Soviet Socialists Republic

Stalin: Leader of the Soviet Union from the late 1920s until his death.

• consolidated power and resolved leadership issues → socialists constructed socialist party under him

• modernization and industrialization of backwards society → social modernity based on social equality: selflessness and collectivism

political system dominated by communist party

• top ranking members enjoyed privileges but expected to be disciplined, selfless, and loyal to Marxism ideology

• “totalitarian” cs other parties forbidden, state controlled economy, political authorities conformed media to promote certain thinking

• mass social organizations under party control, not Western independence

collectivization of agriculture: Communist policies that ended private ownership of land by incorporating peasants from small family farms into large-scale collective farms. Implemented forcibly in the Soviet Union (1928–1933), it led to a terrible famine and 5 million deaths; a similar process occurred much more peacefully in China during the 1950s

• supposedly better productivity + easier to use modern agricultural machines

• stalin singled out rich peasants (Kulaks) from new collective farms and killed/deported them

• urban activists who fought against this had little evidence of rural crimes and viewed as intrusive

goal in cities: rapid industrialization

• state ownership of property, centralized planning, heavy industry, massive mobilization of human and material resources, and intrusive communist control

• worked for a while

  • 1930s → capital world suffered unemployment, while Soviet Union eliminated it and constructed an industrial society

• big improvements in literacy rates and educational opportunities → social mobility

• west → exploitation of rural to provide for urban, made the rich and powerful richer and more powerful

laced w conflict

• elastic “enemy” concept - prerevolutionary elites and high ranked communist people bc “corrupted by bourgeois ideas” and against stalin’s harsh policies

• class enemies “betrayed revolution and engaged in conspiracy to revert socialism to capitalism”

Terror/Great Purges of late 1930s

• thousands of notable communists, esp Lenin’s top men, were based on suspicious assumptions like denunciations, connection to western countries, bad luck

• arrested and sentenced to harsh remote labor camps - Gulag

• show trials publicized “enemies of the people”

• 1 million executed, 4-5 million sent to gulag and some died too

Capitalism Unraveling: The Great Depression

Great Depression: Worldwide economic contraction that began in 1929 with a stock market crash in the United States and continued in many areas until the outbreak of World War II.

• ww1 = political collapse, this is economic collapse of capitalism

• banks closed, lost life savings, world trade dropped, investments dropped

• businesses closed, unemployment everywhere

• symbolized by vacant factories, soup kitchens, bread lines, beggars

booming economy 1920s, but depression started in USA

• farms/factories produced more goods than could be sold, and speculative stock market frenzy drove up prices too high

• bubble burst, immediately felt in europe bc of trade debt and investments

spread to europe’s empires, esp single export countries

• southeast asia, known for rubber, lost demand for rubber in tires in america

• same with west african cocoa prices

• latin america same → unemployment, social tensions

• now, govts wanna stop exports and focus on import substitution

• revived principles of mexican revolution - land, mexican workers, nationalize oil industry against america

challenges govts of industrialized capitalist countries

• market economy failed, now look at successful soviets - state-controlled had massive growth and no unemployment

• nb wanted communism, but western europe implemented democratic socialism for more regulation of economy and distribution of wealth thru peace and politics

• just like ww1, strengthened state power

Franklin Roosevelt made New Deal

• public spending for ifnrastructure on parks, social security system, minimum wage, supported labor unions, more relief and welfare programs

• more govt agencies → new federal regulation and supervision of economy

new deal still failed, USA didnt recover until massive govt spending for ww2

• best recovery in military japan and nazi germany

The Second World War, 1937-1945

The Road to War in Asia

ww2 began in asia before europe as japanese imperialism promoted strong military culture n national sentiments

• initially, chinese nationalism for manchuria - russo-japanese war

• japanese seized manchuria 1931 - puppet Manchuko - China, US, League of Nations condemned, so japan just left to fw germany and italy

• World War II in Asia: A struggle to halt Japanese imperial expansion in Asia, fought by the Japanese against primarily Chinese and American foes

japan increasingly isolated, surrounded, and threatened

• anti-japanese immigration policies in USA - west didn’t acknowledged japan power

• japan depended on foreign imports of oil

• western imperialists in southeast asia had the good resources

• soviet union has weird communist ideology

1940-1941 → extended operations to colonies of southeast asia - malaya, burma, indonesia, philippines

• liberators and modernizers “Asians for Asians” from European dominance

• cared more about resources

attack on pearl harbor december 1941

• reluctantly after negotiations to end american hostility to japanese imperialism → either accept american terms and become a third power or start war

bc of pearl harbor, USA joined war in pacific

• ended w bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki

• contributed to Axis theater (Japan, Germany, Italy) vs Allies (USA, British, Soviets)

The Road to War in Europe

nazi germany pissed that they’re “low” bc of treaty of versailles → Nazi wants to solve their issues

• World War II in Europe: A struggle to halt German imperial expansion in Europe, fought by a coalition of allies that included Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States

• much more “planned” than WW1 by Germany

Hitler gradually then aggressively rearmed and annexed austria and german czechoslovakia

• british n french uneasily ok w this to appease hitler

• september 1, 1939 - germany attacked poland and ww2 started as british and french declare war on germany

• germany cooks french, british, and attacks soviet union 1941

• large nazi control across europe

huge differences compared to ww1

• unwelcomed, pessimistic for suffering ahead

• first war was defense in trenches, second was German blitzkrieg - lightning war, coordinated fast movement of military tech over large areas

these new techniques were og successful and germany + italy sweeped europe, west soviet union, and north africa

• 1942 - soviets absorbed attack, gradually moved west

• 1942 - US has bunch of resources and joins, coordinates Normandy 1944

• these 2 contributed to defeat of Germany May 1945

Consequences: The Outcomes of a Second Global Conflict

most destructive conflict ever

• bc of new tech - heavy bombers, fighter jets, missiles, atomic weapons

• radical blurring of civilian and military life - EVERYONE is an enemy, i.e. Soviets homeless, businesses destroyed

• R*pe of Nanjing killed and assaulted bunch of women and civilians

• hiroshima and nagasaki, german airstrikes in UK

governments better mobilized economies, people, and propaganda

• colonial resources, like india, used soldiers

• japan took korean women and made them “comfort women”

women drawn into industry and military

• “Rosie the Riveter” - represented women taking on hard industrial jobs; soviet union ½ industrial workforce was women

• Greater Japan Women’s Society enrolled millions to volunteer and save their money

• war = masculinity, so women were kinda scared to challenge patriarchy

Holocaust: Name commonly used for the Nazi genocide of Jews and other “undesirables” in German society

• triggered Jewish diaspora as many emigrated

• death camps to kill Jews in Poland, Russia, etc.

• 6 million Jews; millions of inferior Poles, Russians, Slavs, Gypsies, disabled, gays, communists, jehovah’s witnesses

how the hell could this have happened?

• Jews fled to Israel, “urgency to establish Jewish state”

post ww2 europe impoverished homeless shattered broken buildings - Europe lost prestige

• western half willingly worked with USA, eastern half unwillingly with USSR

• colonial subjects motivated by roosevelt and churchill’s call for choosing to live under govt preferred

renewed interest to maintain international peace

• United Nations much more effective at solving hostilities

• 1945 - World Bank and International Monetary Fund

• US is the top rest of the world is bottom

Communist Consolidation and Expansion: The Chinese Revolution

another effect of ww2 was extension of communism, esp after soviet successful fight against nazis

• stalin had communist control over east europe bc it needed friendly govts to protect from west

• scared that America’s help for west europe 1948 would promote capitalism in east europe

• communism in Eastern Europe: Expansion of post–World War II communism to Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, imposed with Soviet pressure rather than growing out of domestic revolution

• in Yugoslavia, however, they were communist without Soviet help and fought against Nazis

post japanese defeat, vietnam divided and north half was under soviet control

• Ho Chi Minh: Leader of the Vietnamese communist movement that established control first in the north and then the whole of Vietnam after 1975

• Vietnamese socialism and nationalism vs japanese, french, american invaders

• their victories influenced laos and cambodia

CCP seized power in 1949 china

• chinese revolution of 1949: An event that marks the coming to power of the Chinese Communist Party under the leadership of Mao Zedong, following a decades-long struggle against both domestic opponents and Japanese imperialism since its collapse in 1911

• nb was really educated about karl marx unlike in russia; 1921 small CCP wanted to organize working class

Mao Zedong: Chairman of China’s Communist Party and de facto ruler of China from 1949 until his death

• much more formidable than weak provisional govt of bolsheviks

• Guomindang: The Chinese Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-shek that governed from 1928 until its overthrow by the communists in 1949

• promoted modern development, but limited to large cities and not rural impoverished people

• support from elite urban, rural landlords, western powers

bolsheviks wanted urban poor support, ccp wants rural worker support

• chinese didn’t revolt violently unlike russians

• guerilla warfare + land reform + communist military respected chinese peasants

• Long March of 1934-1935 Mao zedong - successful retreat from nationalists, gave prestige to communist power

appealed to women for recruitment by banning arranged money marriages, easier divorces, voting and property rights

• women’s associations promoted literacy, handicraft production, forum for women’s rights

• resistance from traditional rural farmers → reform to not divorce military husband on duty, family property given to men, female party members mostly worked with children/women

japan brutal invasion opened doors for CCP party bc Guomindang is incapable

• party and military grew a lot bc of war waged against Japanese, and CCP provided security to many Chinese bc of guerilla tactics they learned before

• Guomindang hates communists more than japanese

• CCP reduces taxes on peasants, taught literacy, mobilized women

• encouraged peasants to speak up radically

CCP assertively addressed foreign imperialism and peasant exploitation

• new chinese nationalism, social radicalism, new honest reputation bc more connected to peasants

• bolsheviks got support from withdrawing from ww1, ccp got support by actively fighting against japanese

• 1949 → CCP won against Guomindang → those ppl fled to taiwan

Chapter 21: Milestones of the Past Century: A Changing Global Landscape 1950-Present

Recovering from the War

self-inflicted tragedies, but no permanent collapse

• rebuilt industrial economies and revived democratic political systems

• three factors explain recovery

• 1) resiliency of industrial society once established → knowledge, skills, habits allowed society to operate effectively

2) ability to integrate recovering economies and put aside nationalism for peace and prosperity

• european economic community: An alliance formed in 1957 by six West European countries dedicated to developing common trade policies and reduced tariffs; it gradually developed into the larger European Union and even now includes eastern europe

• 2002 → 12, then later 17, adopted same currency

• economic recovery and european identity

3) USA is the dom western and global superpower :3 bc they always want global leadership

• Marshall Plan: Huge U.S. government initiative to aid in the post–World War II recovery of Western Europe that was put into effect in 1948; adviers, technicians, billions of dollars

• motives: humanitarian concerns, prevent new depression by creating overseas markets for american goods, undermine growing communism in europe

• super successful - rapid economic growth between 1948-1970s → better living standards

• political and military security mainly against immediate communist threat of USSR

• NATO made in 1949 → USA committed nuclear arsenal to defend Europe against USSR, made West Germany with Western Alliance → less military expenditures

similar process in japan 1945-1952

• rapid economic growth to become powerhouse

• japan depended more on US for its military security bc of imposed democratic constitution

recovery of horribly damaged soviet union very diff

• stalin’s last year of rule very harsh - no tolerance, 3-4 million people for cheap labor

• wholly state planned heavy industry, agricultural production, military expenditure at expense of basic consumer goods (shoes)

• some support bc lowered bread price

seized industrial complexes, agricultural goods, raw materials, gold, and european art from germany, poland, etc.

• looting according to west, “spoils of war” to USSR - justified by human and material damage

• 1950s → economic recovery on the way

Communism Chinese-Style

china recovering from japanese imperialism w mao zedong

• redemption from century of imperialist humiliation/semi-colonial rule to distinct modern chinese development + prestige

chinese building socialism very diff from russia

• bolsheviks were alone in a capitalist world, but now, china has a socialist neighbor ally!

• chinese revolutionaries had more govt experience

• chinese communists rooted in rural peasants, russians rooted in urban laborers

much more daunting prospects than soviet union, though

• larger population, smaller industrial base, limited agricultural land, education/literacy/transportation limits

• build modern society more from scratch

Building a Modern Society

initially sought soviet socialist modernizations w some reforms

• collectivization of agriculture very peaceful in 1950s cs ccp and rural peasants are :3, so they pushed it even further

• great leap forward: Communist push for collectivization that created “people’s communes” and aimed to mobilize China’s population for rapid development

  • more social equality and collective living intended

industrialization modeled on soviet large-scale heavy industries, urban factories, centralized planning by state n party, mobilize women for work

• also similarly, big economic growth, rural to urban migration, emergence of bureaucratic elite - planners, managers, scientists, engineers

• favored urban over rural, privileges given to educated and technically trained elite

• stalin was ok w inequalities, not Mao! → efforts to combat inequality and preserve spirit of CCP

  • increased life expectancy, steel/coal production

mao and others realized modeling the soviets was pushing china away from socialism n towards inequality, individualism, and urban bias at expense of rural

• great leap forward marked Mao’s first response → small-scale rural industrialization, spread education everywhere, immediate transition to communism in small communes instead of waiting for industrial development

• national catastrophe - administration, disrupted market networks, bad weather → bad famine of 30 million deaths

cultural revolution: China’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was a massive campaign launched by Mao Zedong in the mid-1960s to combat the capitalist tendencies that he believed reached into even the highest ranks of the Communist Party; the campaign threw China into chaos

• new efforts to bring education and healthcare to rural

• rural industrialization under local, not central, control

• struggled but w great success to combat inequalities of chinese socialism n make modern socialism distinct from soviet

Eliminating Enemies

just like soviets, 1950s they tryna find new enemies; soviet, under clear control of state

• this was much more public in china esp in cultural revolution

• mao called for rebellion against communist party itself bc worried there are people seduced by capitalism - young Red Guards want to get rid of capitalist ppl

• huge rallies attacked local govt and party people, teachers, intellectuals, factory managers, etc. and sent to rural to learn from peasants

• mao called military to restore order

• soviet terror and chinese cultural revolution discredited socialism and contributed to collapse of communist experiments

East versus West: A Global Divide and a Cold War

cold war: Geopolitical and ideological conflict between communist regimes and capitalist powers after World War II, spreading from Eastern Europe through Asia; characterized by the avoidance of direct military conflict between the USSR and the United States and an arms race in nuclear weapons

• now, USA is a major political and military global power

Military Conflict and the Cold War

north atlantic treaty organization (NATO): military alliance, created in 1949, between the United States and various European countries; largely aimed at defending against the threat of Soviet aggression in Eastern Europe during the cold war (voluntary sphere)

• Warsaw Pact: A military alliance between the Soviet Union and communist states in Eastern Europe, created in 1955 as a counterweight to NATO; expressed the tensions of the cold war in Europe (forced sphere)

• Iron Curtain between West and East, but no shooting

hot war in Asia

• 1st major conflict NK invasion of SK 1950 → Korea War w China, USA, still ongoing

• 2nd major conflict Vietnam → South communists wanna unite w alrdy North communists, USA intervenes

  • strong willpower, supported by Soviets and Chinese, united country under communism 1975

3rd major conflict in Afghanistan cs Marxist party took over 1978

• soviets initially happy, but radical land reforms + liberating women made this conservative country alienated

• soviets intervened to prevent radical islam overthrow instead of communism, but lost, and US gave weapons to Afghans

• communist regime collapsed 1989 after soviets withdrew

most scary part was w communist Cuba and Fidel Castro (Cuban Missile Crisis)

• america hospitality made Khrushchev secretly deploy soviet missiles in cuba

• US found out October 1962, but Khruschev and JFK compromised - soviets removed missiles from cuba, USA won’t invade Cuba

Nuclear Standoff and Third-World Rivalry

cuban missile crisis: Major standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1962 over Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba; the confrontation ended in compromise, with the USSR removing its missiles in exchange for the United States agreeing not to invade Cuba

• american monopoly motivated soviets to surpass warheads in 1949, 60k warheads made

• delivered easily

people knew there would be drastic consequences if there was shooting bw soviets and americans

• post crisis, avoided nuclear provocation by avoiding any military confrontation bc it could ez escalate

many opportunities for conflict

• both sides used military economic aid, education, political pressure to take newly decolonized nations

• soviets helped revolutionary movements in cuba, vietnam and US intervened in iran philippines guatemala etc

• US supported anticommunist but corrupt regimes; still, these countries did not let themselves get dominated, ex India got soviet aid but killed communist party members

The Cold War and the Superpowers

ww2 and cold war show why US is a huge superpower

• lead anticommunist intervention - involved in sm organizations, treaties, a million soldiers, alliances, gave economic and military aid

• thanks to great US economy and booming middle class

• US most productive after ww2! no war on its soil!

lots of conflict within communist world

• soviets dont like stalin’s cruelty; hungary, czechoslovakia, and poland make reform movements to protest

the west viewed communists as one united force under soviets

• esp cs Marxists eroded national loyalties for “workers of the world”

• still, more divided than the so-called warlike, greedy, capitalist nations

yugoslav hate soviet dominating internal affairs, map their own socialism

• feared spread of reform, soviet invaded allies czech and hungary, threatened poland

• tarnished soviet communism as tyrannical, capitalism better

USSR and China, the big 2 communists, hated each other cs of territory, ideology, rivalry for communist leadership

• 1960 → Soviets backed out of promise to help build atomic bombs, took out experts

• china built warheads quick, tensions escalated bw them

• nationalism mattered more as communist china attacked vietnam which attacked communist cambodia

communism still had greatest territorial reach in 1970s

• china recovering from cultural revolution, soviet matched USA, Cuba still a communist outpost w improved healthcare and education + supported revolutionary movements

• vietnam and africans love marxism

Toward Freedom: Struggles for Independence

struggle for decolonization: Process in which many African and Asian states won their independence from Western colonial rule, in most cases by negotiated settlement and in some cases through violent military confrontations

• declining legitimacy of empires and race for basis of political/social life

• millions mobilized; national freedom, personal dignity, opportunity, prosperity

by end of the century, empires gone

• first in asia and middle east late 1940s - philippines, india, burma, syria, iraq

• 50s-70s - african independence

• 70s - oceania

• carribean - 60s and 70s, cuba officially rejected american control too!

The End of Empire in World History

empires have ended, but never with this much nationalist ideologies other than atlantic revolutions

• claimed the same status; but in revolutions, the people were the same race as the colonizers, not like in this case w diff cultures

austria and ww1 collapsed post ww1 → new states

• russian empire → soviet union, ww2 ended german and japanese empires

• influenced lots of national self-determination; new idea - humans naturally divided into diff nations that deserved its own independent state

nationalist govt attacked USA’s sphere of influence in latin america

• sparked mexican revolution → nationalized oil industry, similar revolutions in cuba and rest of latin america

• influenced eastern europe revolutions of 1989 and collapse of 1991 soviet union into many national states; only china’s central empire held onto tibet

Toward Independence in Asia and Africa

at the beginning of the century, national self-government was not very popular, nor the collapse of empires

lots of contradictions in empires

• christianity and enlightenment progress, but racism, exploitation, and poverty?

• europe says all nation should rule themselves but still controlled and governed colonies?

• colonialism directly opposes european values of democracy and national self determination

colonies gained independence post ww2 bc many things happened at once

• europe too weak to hold them, US and USSR hate colonialism, United Nation protected against anticolonial agitation

• local educated elite started resisting

• right conditions for independence - colonialism is morally and politically unacceptable

colonies developed the people for anticolonial movements thru social economic processes

• western educated elites provided leadership and believed in progress without colonial rule, regular people fw ts more

• veterans, fresh out of college people, exploited urban workers, small female farmers, and rural dwellers open to independence

• populations grew → more grievances

colonial rulers of africa and asia a little tense now

• want to form new kinds of political relationships w subjects; colonies, led by local elites, a part of global economic network → europe wants profit without trouble of political rule

• deliberate planning for decolonization → slow political reforms, investments in railroads and telegraph lines, holding elections, writing constitutions

• rulers giving independence?

occurred though bc huge pressure from rising national movements

• male educated leaders mobilized and planned everything—-parties, member, strategy, negotiations—-with each other and the colonial state

• new fathers Gandhi and Nehru in India, Sukarno Indonesia, Mandela South Africa

• nationalist leaders want to join world of independent nation states and United Nations and wealth and tech, not old ways

national leaders had to recruit huge masses

• millions ordinary for Gandhi’s nonviolence, thousand freedom guerilla fightes in Algeria Zimbabwe Mozambique, West African workers on strike

not cohesive, uniformly oppressed people - fragile alliances among people of diff class, religion, ethnicities, regions

• debate over ideology, strategy, leadership, material benefits

• difficulty of leaders relating to commonpeople

• Nigeria → 3 major political parties with their own ethnicity, but which nation gets to rule?

Indian National COngress: The political party led by Mahatma Gandhi that succeeded in bringing about Indian independence from Britain in 1947 despite divisions and controversies

• Mohandas Gandhi: Often known as “Mahatma” or “Great Soul,” the political leader of the Indian drive for independence from Great Britain; rejected the goal of modern industrialization and advocated nonviolence

• meanwhile, his own chief lieutenant Nehru embraced science and tech as necessary for future

• people didn’t accept Gandhi’s all inclusiveness of evb, so divisions over british legislature or independence

• small parties advocated for specific castes

biggest threat to unified movement was divide bw hindus and muslims

• muslims worried only hindus get their voice heard, shown when nationalist struggle defined in hindu terms + protected cows

• Muslim League: Political group formed in response to the Indian National Congress in India’s struggle for independence from Britain; the League’s leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, argued that regions of India with a Muslim majority should form a separate state called Pakistan

• theyre js two distinct nations - Gandhi, with reluctance, and the Congress Party agreed to partition since british is gna leave post ww2

1947 - muslim pakistan and mostly hindu secular india

• millions died from violence during partition, several refugees to join corresponding region

• gandhi didn’t join any independence celebration

• awesome we r free from british, but tragedy of partition

nationalist movements took varying lengths to fully achieve

• vietnam had it in 1900s, but didnt get until 1970s after fighting french, japanese, americans

• south africa - waged against white settler minority, mature industrialized urban nation + apartheid w extreme racism - free from oppression finally 1994

west africa relied on peaceful political tactics like strikes and protests, but algeria had violent guerrila warfare

ideologies and outlooks of nationalist movements r different

• india and islamic world viewed nation thru religion, Indonesia → mixture of religion, nationalist, marxism

• vietnam and china → worried little abt domestic class inequality, focused on ending racism and gaining political independence

After Freedom

ok now how do we govern and build a nation and develop modernly?

• china, thailand, ethiopia, iran, turkey, central/south america - bloc of third world, developing, Global South countries

common conditions to create new political order

• booming populations, huge expectations for independence vs resources

• cultural diversity, less state loyalty, greater employment

• poor and weak private economies → groups want state for salaries and for the opportunities that public office gave

varying political systems

• communism in china vietnam cuba

• multiparty democracy in india and south africa

• one party mexico, tanzania, senegal

• military latin america, africa, middle east

• dictatorship in iraq uganda philippines

as colonial rule ended, europe tried to implement democratic institutions

• legislature, allowed elections and political parties to operate, anticipated their own constitutional, parliamentary, multiparty democracies

this esp in india

• since independence, western democracy, regular elections, civil liberties, peaceful changes

• elsewhere, like in africa, few retained their democratic institutions and many of the og independence parties wiped away by military

• devolved into one party or dictator systems

military takeovers bc economic disappointments, class resentments, ethnic conflicts, promised civilians democracy eventually

similar military interventions in latin america 1960s and 1970s

• new and unexpected in africa, but armed forces always intervened in latin america and escaped ethnic conflicts but didnot escape clear class tensions

• latin america more modernized and always under shadow of USA

globalization of democracy: Late twentieth-century political shift that brought popular movements, multiparty elections, and new constitutions to countries around the world

• end autocracy in spain portugal greece + rise democracy in soviet union/eastern europe, but democracy esp in developing nations

• latin america, africa, asia gave up military rulers, single parties, and focused more on participatory political systems

• arab spring 2011 challenged corrupt autocracies, promoted democracy and transparency

why is the global south like this?

• one reason was detaching democracy and human rights from the West → everyone can aspire this, it’s not imposed by the west

• democracy, communism, feminism, christianity was a Western import that globalized and lost its association of being Western → vehicle for social protest

another big factor was the failure of authoritarians to fix economy, improve living, provide jobs, and avoid corruption

• more voluntary groups demanded change + people hate humiliation and brutality, people took to social media as well

• less support for dictators and authoritarian regimes like apartheid and soviet union

consolidation of democratic practice was varied and uncertain

• elected officials turned authoritarian in office and surpassed parliament control

• oligarchies, elites, election fraud

• some efforts crushed - Tiananmen Square, Algeria allowed democracy until their power was threatened, Syrian elected official was former military man that now brought civil war

• democracy still worldwide, and countries experiment w diff govts

Chapter 22: Global Processes: Technology, Economy, and Society 1900-Present

Technology: The Acceleration of Innovation

major processes and events depended on technological innovation

• electric grids, antibiotics, nukes, airplanes, automobiles, cell phones, internet emerged same place industrial revolution emerged

• accumulated wealth n experience allowed them to have momentum n means for innovation

post ww2, universities govts and corporations drove tech development

• university gave knowledge n research

• govts worried abt wars n security → weaponry, medicine, comm, aircraft, rocketry that benefited civilians

• large corps invested in new products to meet and create consumer demands

globalization → innovations spread rapidly

• now, china and india make their own stuff

• varying access to tech

Generating Energy: Fossil Fuel Breakthroughs

age of fossil fuels: Twentieth-century shift in energy production with increased use of coal and oil, resulting in the widespread availability of electricity and the internal combustion engine; a major source of the greenhouse gases that drive climate change

• also start looking into nuclear, wind, solar, water energy modestly

innovations allowed us to transform fossil fuels into useful energy— electricity

• power stations, current, transformers, batteries → commercial scale

widespread availability of electricity bc of electric grids → better standards of living

lit up world at night cheaply → good for students, clubbers, workers

• electric motors made up many industrial machineries and consumer goods

gasoline internal combustion engine also important

• way less horses, fastest movement of goods and people, source of greenhouse gases

• electricity and internal combustion increased amt of energy humans had

Harnessing Energy: Transporting Breakthroughs

new transportation tech built on railroads and steamships

• cars, buses, trucks

• containerized shipping, airplanes, air freight

automobile had the biggest social and cultural impact

• used to be a rare steam engine luxury, but now, cheap gasoline made internal combustion engine cheaper for cars

• henry ford democraticzed automobile, spread to europe n japan

• developing countries contributed a lot to global car amount

modern society and culture impacts

• freedom, individuality, status

• linked remote areas to national life

• air pollution, emissions, traffic accidents

Harnessing Energy: Communication and Information Breakthroughs

communication revolution: Modern transformation of communication technology, from the nineteenth-century telegraph to the present-day smart phone

• vacuum tube, transistor, integrated circuits, microprocessors, fiber-optic cables

• enabled radio, motion picture, television, computer, cellphones, internet

• everything spread globally → no more expensive landlines

reshaped human life + new debates

• everyone aware of national international events, empowered all kinds of govts

• radio used to communicate with the people and spread info, but censorship govts like Soviet were threatened cs they wanted their own media → led to their demise

• Western domination of media may misrepresent minorities and underrepresented backgrounds

impacts of personal computers

• sm information and online education

• computer applications essential to business and economic life → mobile banking allowed people to access financial services

• online commerce significantly grew

new online interactions and interests

• dating, p*rn, online friends, computer-based gaming

anxieties and criticism

• bullying, monitored by govt, manipulated by corps to track data

• do they help or deprive personal relationships?

• hacking govt and corps → issues about cyberwarfare

Harnessing Energy: Military Breakthroughs

new technologies of destruction

• machine gun, dynamite

• submarine, tank, poison gas, radio, aircraft

• radars, computers, jet engines, battle tanks, fighter aircraft, aircraft carriers, atomic bomb

• new means to deliver nukes

• new spinoffs → radar, nuclear power plants, Internet, space exploration, communication satellites