Interwar Years (1918 – 1939)

Topics: 

  • The Post World War I International System

  • Global Depression

  • Fascism (Mussolini, Franco, Hitler)

  • Appeasement & Nazi Aggression 



Topic 1: The Post World War I International System


Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points and the League of Nations

  • Wilson’s Fourteen Points were his plans to create a new International system, one which would solve international conflict through cooperation and prevent another world war 

  • The main two provisions of the League of Nations were: 

  • Creation of international organization to solve disputes 

  • Creation of new nations within Europe

    • Note: Decolonization and Scientific Racism were not addressed (Wilson himself was a vitriolic racist)

  • Although Wilson was an involved with the Treaty of Versailles and main architect of the League of Nations, the United States DID NOT sign the Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations

  • American Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, a staunch opponent of Wilson’s, was able to lead a movement against the United States signing the Treaty of Versailles AND joining the League of Nations

    • Some historians argue that this doomed the organization and made it more likely than an aggressive power would arise in the future in Europe


New European Nations

  • For over 500 years, Finland was controlled mostly by Sweden and subsequently Russia. The Russian Revolution (1917) created an opportunity for Finnish Independence, officially declared in that same year. In 1920, Finland joined the League of Nations and became an official, autonomous country 

  • Likewise, Lithuania successfully fought for its independence from 1918 – 1920 

  • The creation of Poland was one of Wilson’s Fourteen Points. 

    • Since the 1700’s, Poland had been partitioned several times, losing all of its territory and autonomy to Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia

    • In 1918, Poland achieved independence with territory carved out of each of these places

    • Germany would use this as justification for the invasion of Poland in World War II 

  • Czechoslovakia was carved out of the former Austro-Hungarian empire with territory that also included many ethnic Germans. It became the most ethnically diverse nation in Europe and developed an extremely robust industrial economy.









Topic 2: The Global Economic Depression


  • During the Roaring 1920’s, Conspicuous Consumption and Materialism encouraged people in the United States to purchase consumer goods. If they didn’t have the income, people resorted to buying on credit, which was made more easily available

  • The Stock Market boomed, particularly when individuals and corporations began Buying on Margin

  • While the market prospered, tremendous wealth was created as speculation soared. Toward the end of the decade, however, the market began to level off. 

  • A few investors decided to sell off their positions as the economy slowed down. Soon after, many others followed suit, eventually leading to Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929)

  • This led to an immediate spike in unemployment and a run on banks. First in the United States, then in Europe. By 1932, bank failures and unemployment racked the globe and international trade dove 

  • Seeking assistance, Americans elected Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) in 1932

  • Under FDR, the government borrowed tremendous sums of money to fund employment projects and other programs known as “The New Deal.” 

    • Keynesian Economics 


  • Due to the size of the American Economy, the Depression quickly spread throughout the globe, including to newly independent nations (particularly in South America) 

    • World trade plummets 62%

    • By 1932, unemployment reaches 30% in 1932

      • Election of FDR in USA & Nazi Party in Germany


  • While Capitalist nations struggled, the Soviet Union flourished and continued to industrialize, providing evidence to some that Capitalism was a failed system

  • Democratic Socialism emerged in Western Europe, providing benefits and re-distributing wealth

    • The USA, under FDR’s New Deal programs, pursued similar policies (i.e. Social Security)


  • Many people in the United States and Western Europe began to fear that Communism would come to their country and undermine capitalism

Topic 3: The Rise of Fascism 


Italian Fascism (Benito Mussolini)

  • Mussolini founded the Fascist Party in 1919, focused on Nationalism and reviving its Roman past

  • The Blackshirts were Mussolini’s paramilitary organization. They increased his influence through intimidating and attacking political opponents

  • In 1922, Mussolini became Prime Minister. He destroyed all Democratic institutions and freedom over the next several years

    • Meanwhile, he carried out public works programs and reduced unemployment, making him extremely popular 

  • Invasion of Ethiopia (1935)

    • Seeking to avenge the failed Italo-Ethiopian War (1895 – 1896) which was a humiliating defeat for the nation

  • Mussolini supported the Fascists in Spain during the Spanish Civil War (under Francisco Franco) and allied himself with Adolf Hitler of Germany under the “Pact of Steel” and becoming a member of the Axis Powers during World War II


Spanish Fascism and the Spanish Civil War (Francisco Franco)

  • Francisco Franco (1892 – 1975) rose to power in 1936 as a military dictator, a position he was able to hold until his death in 1975

  • Francoist Spain (refers to the nearly 40-year reign of Franco)

  • Spanish Civil War (1936 – 1939)

    • With military assistance from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, Franco was able to cement his rule (the German Luftwaffe were particularly important for air superiority)

  • Despite German and Italian assistance and being part of the Pre-War Axis, Franco declared neutrality in 1939 and Spain stayed out of World War II and subsequently any reprisals from the Allied powers after the war (or from the Soviets despite being Anti-Communist due to location)

  • Franco solidified his power by embracing the Catholic Church, rich landowners, and the military establishment. This allowed him to create a quasi-fascist, quasi-dictatorial regime 

  • The post 1945 world quickly became about anti-Communism, with the United States eager to assist any regime, even oppressive ones, that were committed to fighting Communism (“The Enemy of Enemy is My Friend”)

    • Franco was able to secure economic assistance under the Marshall Plan 

  • Today Franco is remembered as a tyrant, a butcher, and a violator of human rights by academics although some right-wing groups have recently embraced his ideology (similar to the Neo-Nazi movement in Germany, Austria, and the United States)


German Fascism (Adolf Hitler)

  • After World War I, a democratic government called the Weimar Republic ruled Germany 

  • Nazi (National Socialist German Workers’ Party) was formed in 1920

    • Opposed Marxism, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Jews (anti-Semitism), and the ruling government (Weimar Republic) 

  • Hitler’s speeches and Mein Kampf earned him a small cult following. Despite this, the Nazi party only earned 2.6% of the vote in 1928. It is important to note that this is just before the Stock Market collapse in the United States in 1929 and onset of the Global Depression

  • From 1928 to 1932 unemployment soared in Germany from just over 4% in 1929 to almost 25% in 1932

    • Although this was the primary factor, many Germans were also receptive to Hitler’s revisionist history about Germany’s loss in World War I and were upset by the penal terms of the Treaty of Versailles

  • In the 1932 election the Nazi’s were able to secure enough votes to form a ruling coalition. By 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. The Nazi Party immediately began to eliminate all forms of political opposition and resistance.

  • Hitler’s domestic aggressions were mirrored by his foreign ones. Throughout the mid 1930’s he would re-build Germany’s military and prepare to unleash it upon the world.

    • Note: We will discuss domestic aggressions when we study the Holocaust


Topic 4: Appeasement and Nazi Aggression


The Failure of the League of Nations

  • The League of Nations was created with the intent of preventing another “War to End All Wars.” 

  • Despite the fact that Woodrow Wilson was the main proponent for the organization, the United States did not join it or sign the Treaty of Versailles due to domestic desires to recede from European affairs. 

  • Although one can argue that the League of Nations had some positive impacts, its legacy is intertwined with that of the policy of Appeasement and the simple fact that World War II happened. Subsequently, the League of Nations has come to be seen as weak and a failure. 



The Mindset Behind Appeasement

  • Due to the devastation of World War I, there was little appetite among European countries to repeat it. France and England, in particular, benefitted greatly from the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and maintaining the status quo and avoiding International conflict was in their best interest. 

  • The Global Depression added another layer of complexity to challenging German aggression because citizens wanted their government to focus on domestic problems rather than allocating resources toward meeting German aggression. 



Hitler’s Ideology: The 3rd Reich and Lebensraum


The Three Reich’s

  • 1st Reich: Holy Roman Empire (Charlemagne founds in 800 CE, lasts until 1806)

  • 2nd Reich: Otto Von Bismarck (1871 German unification – end of WWI in 1918)

  • 3rd Reich: Hitler argued that a “1,000-year Reich, or ‘realm’ would be ushered in) 


Lebensraum

  • “Living Space” – The “Manifest Destiny of Germany” 

  • Hitler’s plan was to go East and invade/starve the Slavic people (Poland, Lithuania, Russia, etc.) and to populate those areas with Aryan Germans (achieving military and racial objectives)

  • Natural Resources from these areas would also prove key to the German Reich 

    • Used Darwin’s concept of natural selection


Czechoslovakia

  • Prior to WWI, the Austrian empire controlled Central Europe for 400 years 

  • In 1918, Independence was declared for the new nation of Czechoslovakia 

    • Bohemia (Prague), Moravia-Silesia (Brno), and Slovakia (Bratislava), and part of Romania, south of the Carpathian Mountains 

  • Ethnic Breakdown – 14 million citizens 

    • 7 million Czechs 

    • 3.5 million Germans (Sudetenland)

  • Became a prosperous, multi-ethnic nation 

    • It was the 8th most developed nation in the world

    • Larger army than Britain (was the best prepared military in Europe)


Munich Betrayal, 1938

  • “About us but without us.” Czech tour guide, Jakob. Czechs were not represented in the negotiations

  • “If you are not sitting at the table you are on the menu.” Random American (according to my Czech tour guide

  • Neville Chamberlain returns to Britain, triumphantly declaring “Peace in our time.” 

    • Show “Neville Chamberlain ‘Peace in our Time’ speech subtitled (2015)” on YouTube. 

  • Show and analyze YouTube video: “World War II in 1938?” a Czech historian examines an alternate path


“Kwestia Polska” – “The Polish Question”

  • In 1795, the final partition of Poland wiped the nation off the face of the planet

  • For the next two hundred years (until the collapse of the Soviet Union) Polish sovereignty was not guaranteed

  • World War I saw the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire and defeat of Germany. This presented an opportunity for a Polish state to be carved out of the two defeated empires. 

  • Polish Independence Day was celebrated on November 11th, 1918 (123 years after partition)

  • Polish Corridor (AKA Danzig Corridor)

    • Poland was given access in the North to the Baltic Sea 

    • The city of Danzig, although ethnically German, became a free city under the protection of the League of Nations

    • Germany was separated from East Prussia (also part of Germany) by this narrow strip of Polish territory. 

  • Gleiwitz Incident