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The Nature of Groups

  • A group is generally defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.
  • People can be part of formal and informal groups in the workplace.
  • Why people join groups: they satisfy the need for belonging, help gain information, enable understanding of the world through social comparison, define personal and social identities, and assist in achieving shared goals.
  • Examples mentioned: Clubs; Sports Teams; The Power of Fandom (illustrating group identity and cohesion).

Social Identity Theory

  • Social identity theory explains intergroup behavior and communication based on the value people place on group memberships and their desire to view their groups positively. (Harwood, 2020 p. 1)
  • Every person has personal identities and social identities; we automatically categorize the world into ingroups and outgroups.
  • Self-esteem is enhanced by ingroup membership; people are motivated to favour their own group relative to outgroups.
  • This ingroup favouritism can be positive (cohesion, cooperation) but also fosters bias, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination.
  • In-group favouritism: ingroup members are perceived as better; those outside the group are seen as homogeneous.
  • Social identity threat occurs when association with a devalued group leads to perceived personal judgment or harm.

The Dark Side of Groups

  • Groups can provide social support, friendship, shared knowledge, and expertise, but they can also cause collective harm.
  • In extreme cases, group dynamics can lead to prejudice, discrimination, conflict, terrorism, and war.
  • Situational variables, especially power and status, can drive unethical behaviour within groups.

Stages of Group Development

  • Various OB models suggest groups move through predictable phases or stages.
  • The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model:
    • First meeting, Phase 1, A, (A+B)/2, Time, Phase 2, Completion, -Transition, B (illustrative diagram in Exhibit 8.1).
    • Performance is high or low at different phases with a transition near the midpoint of the project.
  • Tuckman’s Model of Group Development:
    • Forming
    • Storming
    • Norming
    • Performing
    • Adjourning

Group Properties

  • Key group properties include:
    • Group roles
    • Group norms
    • Group status and size
    • Group cohesiveness and diversity
  • Role conflict can cause significant stress in work settings.
  • Performance norms are the most common norms in groups.
  • Diversity can yield positive outcomes but often correlates with conflict, especially in early stages of group development.
  • Status in groups strongly predicts behavior; high-status members tend to be assertive, outspoken, and may dominate discussions, potentially hindering performance.
  • Managers can foster cohesiveness by:
    • Making the group smaller
    • Increasing time spent together
    • Physically isolating the group
    • Providing group rewards

Group Decision-Making

  • Group decision-making typically offers greater diversity of resources, ideas, and opinions than individuals acting alone; participating members are more likely to support and accept a decision.
  • Weaknesses include conformity pressures, reduced efficiency, longer decision times, potential internal conflict, and ambiguous responsibility.
  • Brainstorming is effective for generating ideas in groups but is not very efficient.

Groupthink

  • Groupthink occurs when the norm of consensus overrides a realistic appraisal of alternative actions.
  • Groups prone to groupthink tend to be: performance-focused rather than learning-focused, socially isolated, highly cohesive, with low psychological safety, and under time pressure.
  • Reduction strategies include:
    • Carefully monitoring group size
    • Appointing a devil’s advocate
    • Training leaders to withhold their own opinions and encourage input from all members
    • Using exercises to encourage discussion of diverse ideas

Conformity

  • Group conformity refers to adjusting behaviours to align with group norms.
  • People are highly motivated to fit into their perceived ingroups and will often conform their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours due to group influence.
  • Conformity is neither inherently good nor bad – its value depends on the situation.

The Stanford Prison Experiment

  • A landmark 1971 study designed to examine how ordinary people respond to positions of power in a highly stressful setting.
  • Participants were randomly assigned to roles of prisoner or guard in a mock jail; the setting revealed how situational variables, especially power and status, can lead to unethical behaviour in groups.
  • The experiment highlighted the potential for ordinary individuals to engage in abusive or unethical actions under situational pressures.

Work Groups vs. Work Teams

  • Work Group: interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help each member perform within their area of responsibility.
  • Team: a group whose combined efforts yield performance that is greater than the sum of individual inputs.
  • Why teams are popular in organisations: they leverage collective talents, are flexible and responsive to change, can assemble/disband quickly, encourage employee involvement, and can democratise organisations.

Types of Teams

  • Problem-Solving Teams: groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways to improve quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
  • Self-Managed Work Teams: groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors; generally good at managing conflict and coordinating key activities; often higher job satisfaction but higher absenteeism and turnover; not all self-managed teams have positive experiences.
  • Cross-Functional Teams: employees from a similar hierarchical level but from different work areas come together to accomplish a task.
  • Virtual Teams: teams that use computer technology to unite geographically dispersed members; require careful management to sustain high performance; important to establish trust, monitor progress, publicise accomplishments, and select members carefully.
  • Multi-Team Systems: a collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal; a team of teams.

Creating Effective Teams: Context, Composition, and Process

  • A Team Effectiveness Model involves three overarching categories:

Context

  • Adequate resources are needed to enable teams to perform at their best.
  • Leadership and structure are required to support high team performance.
  • Teams benefit from a climate of trust and interpersonal trust among members.
  • Hybrid performance systems that recognise both individual and team goals are needed.

Composition

  • Team members’ knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) influence performance.
  • Team member personality matters; task conflict can enhance performance for teams with high emotional stability.
  • Role allocation is important to leverage members’ strengths.
  • Diversity findings are mixed: cultural differences can broaden viewpoints but may challenge collaboration and problem-solving.
  • Team size: the generally ideal range is 5 to 9 members.
  • High-performing teams tend to comprise members who prefer working as part of a team; work preferences are important.

Process

  • Teams need a common plan and purpose to perform effectively.
  • Team goals should be challenging to motivate high performance.
  • Teams with a high level of efficacy are more likely to perform well.
  • Conflict is not inherently bad and should be managed carefully.
  • To reduce social loafing, team members should be individually and collectively accountable to the team.

Turning Individuals into Team Players

  • Managers can support teamwork and team development by:
    • Choosing employees who are most likely to work well in a team
    • Teaching teamwork principles through targeted training and skill-building
    • Providing incentives for good teamwork behaviours

Future Challenges for Work Teams and Managers

  • Teams of the future will be more diverse and geographically dispersed; require careful management and new collaboration methods.
  • AI is increasingly used in teamwork; managers should be aware of implications for individual and organisational outcomes.

Future Challenges: Diversity

  • Diversity can occur across criteria such as gender, age, race, cultural background, religion, sexual orientation, disability status, education, socio-economic status, etc.
  • Managers need a broad skillset to manage diverse teams, including cultural competency, communication, empathy, emotional intelligence, and conflict management.
  • Team members should be aware of their own biases and how these influence behaviour.

Future Challenges: Virtual Teams

  • Virtual teams are likely to remain common as remote work grows.
  • Success requires: member training in relevant technology, ongoing technology maintenance, a supportive organisational culture, and competencies for operating in a virtual environment.

AI in Teamwork

  • AI can offer many benefits but also pose challenges for teamwork.
  • AI tools include:
    • Virtual assistants
    • Intelligent project management software
    • Simultaneous translation services
  • Predictive AI may be used to analyze team member characteristics (e.g., personality traits, work preferences, language competency) to assemble the most effective team via pre-determined algorithms.
  • AI can help reduce destructive conflict by predicting potential conflict, identifying when intervention is needed, and suggesting effective resolution strategies.

Review Questions (Week 2)

  • Why do people form groups? What are the different types of groups?
  • What are the two major models of group development? What are the stages in each and how do they differ?
  • What does OB research tell us about group properties?
  • What are the strengths and weaknesses of group decision-making?
  • What is groupthink and how can it be minimised?
  • What is conformity? Why do people conform in group settings?
  • What does the Stanford Prison Experiment teach us about groups and unethical behaviour?
  • Why have teams become more popular in organisations today?
  • What are the major differences between work groups and work teams?
  • What are the major types of teams in organisations today? How do they differ?
  • What are the main elements of the team effectiveness model? What do we know about the various categories and how they impact teamwork?
  • How can organisations support teamwork and develop individuals into team players?
  • When is work performed by individuals preferable to work performed by teams?
  • What are the future challenges with respect to teams and teamwork?

Week 2 Revision & Exam Preparation

  • Check your email and Blackboard daily for announcements.
  • Complete the Personality and Individual Differences reading before attending the seminar.
  • Review the Workshop Assessment Guide.
  • Access the team charter materials from Blackboard for tutorial.
  • Next week is your final opportunity to join a workshop team, so ensure you attend your tutorial Next Week