Chapter 12

Chapter 12 introduces various music traditions from South America and Mexico, noting the cultural connections between these regions.
Mexico, while geographically in North America, aligns culturally with Central American countries.
The chapter particularly focuses on music originating from South America, linked to major pre-Columbian empires:
- Aztec Empire centered in modern Mexico City and the North Central region, with traces in the Yucatan Peninsula.
- Maya occupied the Yucatan Peninsula, Chiapas, and Guatemala.
- Inca Empire located primarily in the Andes mountains of Peru.

Spanish conquistadors and Roman Catholic missionaries heavily influenced these regions during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Other colonial powers impacted the Caribbean in the 18th century.
Spanish is the dominant language in Central and South America, except for Portuguese in Brazil.

Roman Catholicism serves as the major religion, leading to numerous traditional festivals.
Indigenous cultural elements remain prevalent in language, dress, food, religion, and music, rooted in pre-Columbian traditions.
All major indigenous groups were skilled in astronomy, exemplified by the Aztec calendar stone which reflects their understanding of solar and lunar cycles.
- Architecture often reflects astronomical significance, marking important events like solstices.

The slave trade introduced numerous African populations predominantly in coastal areas of South America, especially in Brazil and regions towards Guyana.
Limited African cultural influence is found in the interior of South America and much of Central America, akin to the Caribbean.
Music in Central and South America often embodies a mixture of three cultures: indigenous, European, and African.

The Amazon rainforests host numerous ethnic groups; the Amazon River is significant as the second longest river in the world.
- It has the highest total flow compared to the Nile and other major rivers.
Environmental issues like deforestation have compelled many Amazonian groups to confront modern society while preserving traditional lifestyles.

Amazonian music typically begins by mimicking sounds from nature, featuring common chant traditions among indigenous populations.
Pulsation in voice and a slight volume amplification articulate rhythm, aligning with dance movements.
**Common Features:
- Unison singing is prevalent.
- Distinctive falling melodic contours are observed, particularly in the Kayabo Chicrian performances.**
Performances are often divided by gender, emphasizing anthropological aspects like marriage rituals and subsistence activities (e.g., hunting).

While vocal performance dominates, some instruments (bamboo stamping tubes, small rattles) may provide rhythmic support.
Many songs are believed to be taught by spirits encountered in dreams or during rituals, with shamans facilitating communication through music and trance states.

Sukuri panpipe ensembles are distinctive in Peru. The Andes mountains, rising averagely 13,000 feet, feature Lake Titicaca and Cusco as cultural hubs for indigenous research.
Urban areas display more influence from Spanish culture while rural traditions reflect continuity from the Inca era.
Quino music, associated with urban settings, incorporates guitars with traditional instruments like the charango.

The sakuri ensemble features multiple handpipes, typically with over 50 in a single performance; notes interlock to cover a full scale.
Instruments used include a large bass drum and a smaller accompanying drum.
Homophonic structure in Peruvian music typically sees melodic contours moving in parallel motion.

Roman Catholic holidays and traditional festivals are occasions for music participation; the Sakuri performance at Easter exemplifies this.
Large ensembles are common, promoting community cooperation through interlocking melodic lines, often competing joyfully for audience applause.

Tango, a popular ballroom dance, has roots in the Buenos Aires seaport subculture.
- It emerged from interactions primarily among sailors and locals during a flourishing nightlife.
Its music utilizes dynamic changes, creating an emotional and unpredictable atmosphere; the essential tango rhythm goes "one-and-three" in a four-pulse duple meter.

After the British attack on Buenos Aires in 1806, citizens were motivated to assert self-governance.
Eva Perón, the wife of President Juan Domingo Perón, significantly influenced Argentine culture and politics before her premature death at age 33.

Characterized by mood swings influenced by tempo changes and dynamics. The origins included a love triangle interpretation with two men vying for a woman's favor.
Tango evolved further into ballroom dance, diminishing its original intensity and erotic gestures while retaining sentiment.

Brazil, the largest South American country, showcases samba as pivotal to its cultural identity, developed amid significant African influence from the slave trade.
- Varied samba styles are associated with carnival, each emphasizing different rhythmic patterns and instrumentation.
The quika, a distinctive friction drum, contributes unique timbres while guitar exemplifies European influences.

Samba encompasses call-and-response vocal styles, where responses often take prominence during carnival festivities.
The core samba rhythm follows a quick four-beat meter, underscoring a celebratory spirit.
Samba's origin relates closely to folk dance, highlighting social connections among participants.

Capoeira, a martial art blend of dance and music with roots in African fighting styles, emerged among escaped slaves. The rhythmic barambao serves as the principal accompaniment for performances.
Performances typically transition through cooperative, control, and confrontational sections, often led by a maestro who orchestrates tempo transitions.

Capoeira evolved as a form of cultural expression, cloaked in the guise of dance to evade scrutiny from authorities unaware of its combat origins.

Mariachi, rooted in the traditions of the Aztec and Maya, symbolizes Mexican culture.
Modern Mexico City (built on ancient Aztec ruins) embodies a cultural heritage blending indigenous and Spanish traditions.

Celebratory in nature, characterized by outdoor performances often linked with weddings and festivals. Key instruments include various guitars, violins, and trumpets.

Vocalization in mariachi tends to be marked by clear melodic lines, typically in major keys to enhance festive atmospheres. Unlike flamenco, improvisation is less common in mariachi singing.
Regional Variations: Each of Mexico's 31 states maintains unique music forms influenced by Spanish and indigenous traditions.
- Notable regions include Chiapas for marimba ensembles and Jalisco, recognized as the birthplace of mariachi.

Gained fame during the early 20th century via portrayals in western films, fostering a stereotype of Mexican culture.
Today, mariachi is integral to local culture, performing in tourism hubs and community events, where performers adapt to local attire.

Concion encompasses song-based music, with varied types including concion branciera, akin to country music backed by mariachi.