Study Notes for History 104: The Northwest and Rupert's Land

Definition: The Métis are descendants of European (specifically French and English) fur traders and First Nations partners.
Culture and Economy: The Métis community maintained a hybrid culture and economy that integrated elements from both European and First Nations traditions.
Community Location: Predominantly lived at Red River, which was traditionally bifurcated between French and English influences.
Reconciliation of Differences: By the 1860s, most of the cultural and societal differences between the French and English Métis populations had been reconciled.

Intent: It was clear that Canada intended to annex the Northwest Territories.
Public Sentiment: Few people opposed this annexation in principle, as alternatives were considered worse.
Implementation Issues: The main issues revolved around the methods Canada employed to annex the Northwest Territories.

Transaction Details: The Canadian government acquired the rights to the Northwest from the Hudson’s Bay Company, which held only a trading license for the area.
British Government Approval: Approval by the British government was contingent upon recognizing First Nations sovereignty and land title.
Treaty Requirement: Before taking action on the land, treaties needed to be signed with First Nations peoples.

Government Indifference: Both the British and Canadian governments largely disregarded the Métis, assuming they would assimilate into a future English-dominant Canada.
Lifestyle and Land Rights: The Métis exhibited hybrid lifestyles encompassing aspects from French-Canadian, Indigenous, and English cultures.
Title to Land: Technically, the Métis held no legal title to their land due to the absence of a governing authority to grant such titles.

Historical Context: In 1869, Britain and Canada consented to allow Canada to take control of the Northwest.
Administrative Changes: Canada aimed for direct control, appointing a lieutenant-governor for governance.
Surveyors Sent: Surveyors were dispatched in preparation for settlement prior to the transfer of power, raising concerns among the Métis.
Concerns of Land Theft: Métis suspected that there was a plan to appropriate their land and disenfranchise them.
Leadership: Led by Louis Riel, a young and charismatic Métis lawyer, who established a provisional government aligned with the Crown but demanded recognition of Métis rights.
Support and Opposition: The movement garnered wide support from the population but faced resistance from a small group of settlers from Ontario, characterized as radical and anti-Catholic.

Pro-Canadian Opposition: Led by Charles Mair, who was a poet, journalist, and anti-Catholic activist, attempted to instigate rebellion against the provisional government.
Imprisonment of Protesters: Most remained imprisoned while some were expelled to Canada.
Scott's Actions: Thomas Scott was particularly vocal, assaulting guards and threatening violence, which created public outcry for action from the provisional government.
Riel’s Decision: To restore order, Riel ordered Scott's execution, which had significant ramifications.

Emergency Response: Faced with mounting pressure, Canada realized that it couldn't quickly deploy troops to the Northwest, raising fears that the U.S. might exploit the situation.
Public Sympathy: Despite having some opposition, there was considerable sympathy in both Ontario and Quebec for the Métis plight, although animosity lingered from anti-Catholic factions.
Negotiation and Military: Canada began negotiations but also sent a mix of British regulars and militia to the Northwest to maintain order, albeit arriving after tensions had peaked.

Métis Gains: The Métis strategy led to the establishment of Manitoba as a province, recognition of their rights, including Catholic rights, and acknowledgment of property rights.
Backlash in Ontario: The execution of Thomas Scott incited considerable backlash against the Métis in Ontario.
Military Conduct: When Canadian militia troops arrived, they exhibited poor discipline, contributing to unrest in Red River.
Métis Displacement: Many Métis chose to move westward, while those remaining largely assimilated or fell into poverty, leading to future conflicts as governmental attitudes grew more authoritarian.

Perception of Annexation: First Nations were not uniformly opposed to Canadian annexation; surprisingly many were informed about the situation through Hudson's Bay Company representatives and missionaries.
Concern Regarding Alternatives: Alternatives to annexation were bleak, particularly given the ongoing U.S. "Indian War" that involved large-scale violence against Indigenous populations.
Sovereignty Recognition: The British had pledged to uphold First Nations’ sovereignty over their lands, necessitating that Canada negotiate treaties before settlement.

Reluctant Treaty Process: The Canadian government was slow and stringent in treaty negotiations, signing treaties in a tight-fisted manner.
Land Transfers: By 1922, the entire Prairie region was transferred to the Canadian government under treaties that guaranteed reserve lands and some benefits in exchange.
Significance: This was the largest legal land transfer in North America, with relatively few violent confrontations compared to other regions.

Controller Role: Sir John A. MacDonald favored a strong central government, influencing the political landscape post-Confederation.
Emergence of Provincial Politics: This resulted in the rise of provincial politicians such as Oliver Mowatt, who led the Provincial Rights Movement.
Judicial Committee Influence: In the 1880s and 1890s, the highest court often sided with provinces, strengthening provincial power.

BNA Act: The British North America Act outlines the federal government's responsibility for ensuring "Peace, Order and Good Government".
Philosophical Comparison: In contrast to the U.S. emphasis on individual rights, Canada's approach focused on collective governance.

Power Distribution: All powers not granted to provinces are presumed to lie with the federal government.
Veto Power: The federal government also retained veto and disallowance powers inherited from Britain, leading to a significant imbalance in power dynamics that favored the federal government.

Railway Promises: MacDonald promised a railway connecting British Columbia as part of Confederation.
Survey Efforts: After BC entered Confederation, survey teams began assessing routes for the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR).
Kickbacks: Political funding for elections included alleged kickbacks from railway promoters.

Bribery Allegations: The Pacific Scandal involved MacDonald, Cartier, and Langevin receiving $350,000 from Sir Hugh Allan for favorable treatment in securing the CPR construction contract.
Political Fallout: All three politicians faced consequences when the scandal was exposed, resulting in MacDonald's resignation and Allan's loss of the contract.

Liberal Governance: The Liberals, under Alex MacKenzie, governed from 1874-1878 and attempted a more ethical administration avoiding bribery.
Election Reform: Introduced reforms such as the secret ballot and managed federal voting lists through the provinces.