KPSS-AGS Comprehensive Turkish History Study Notes
Pre-Islamic Turkish History Foundations and Cultural Structures
The term Turkish is defined in the work Divan-i Lügat-it Türk as the age of maturity. Historically, the scientist Marco Polo categorized regions by an ethnic lens, naming Anatolia as Minor Turkey and Central Asia as Great Turkey. Among the early Central Asian cultures, the Afanesyova culture is noted for considering the eagle sacred, while the Andronova culture is recognized as having the widest area of expansion. The Yakut Turks are considered the modern-day descendants of the Scythians (İskitler).
The European Huns conducted their first raids into Anatolia during the reign of Uldız under the command of the brothers Kursik and Basık. The ruler Attila is known by several titles and nicknames, including the Scourge of God, the Master of Brave Nations, and King Etzel. His sons from his wife Arig Kan were named İlek, Dengizek, and İrnek. In Central Asia, the Göktürks belonged to the Aşına clan. Before establishing their own state, they served the Avars as blacksmiths. Bumin Kağan founded the state by gathering the Töles tribes under his rule after a dispute with the Avar hakan. During the struggle for the Silk Road, İstemi Yabgu sent an envoy named Maniakh to meet with the Byzantines. The official who is described by Westerners as the Bismarck of the Turks was the bureaucrat Tonyukuk, also known by the title Apa Tarkan. The first international written treaty in Turkish history is known as the North Shansi (Kuzey Şansi) treaty.
Specific groupings in Turkish history include the Karaim Turks, who are considered the descendants of the Khazars. Historical information regarding the Khazars was recorded by scientists such as Ibn Fadlan, Al-Masoudi, and Ibn Hawkal. The Great Bulgarian State was founded north of the Black Sea by Kubrat Han. After his death, the state was split between his sons; while Bat Bayan remained in the Caucasus, Asparuh moved to the Balkans to found the Danube Bulgarian State. Boris Han officially accepted the Orthodox sect of Christianity for the Danube Bulgars, and the ruler Simeon converted the title of Han to Tsar. The Itil Volga Bulgars accepted Islam as their official religion during the reign of Almış Han, influenced significantly by the traveler Ibn Fadlan. Almış Han took the name Cafer Bin Abdullah after his conversion. The modern descendants of these Bulgars are the Chuvash Turks.
State Organization and Social Life in Early Turkish Civilizations
In the pre-Islamic period, the state was built on four fundamental pillars: Uluş (country), Oksızlık (independence), Töre (law), and Kün (people). Political authority was believed to be granted to the ruler by Gök Tanrı through concepts such as Kut (political power), Küç (military power), and Ülüş (economic power). State borders were referred to as Yaka. Within the Kurultay (assembly), the seating arrangement was called Orun. The Pecheneks, described as a division on the Byzantine border, discussed state affairs in a council known as the Komenton. The government, led by the Aygucı, was called the Ayuki. Military governors were known as Tutuk, while the whip used as a symbol of sovereignty was called Berge. The duties of the people toward the state included performing military service, paying taxes, and obeying the Töre.
Cultural and religious life featured specific terminology such as Stupa for Uygur temples and Yurt or Keregü for the tents the people lived in. Natural objects sanctified in nature were called Ongun. Funeral ceremonies involved the belief in Atalar Kültü (Ancestor Cult), where it was believed the spirit of the deceased protected remaining family members. The unchanging provisions of the law according to the work Kutadgu Bilig were Könilik (justice), Uzluk (goodness), Tüzlük (equality), and Kişilik (humanity). Musical terms included Ir for compositions and Küg for melodies. The Uygur alphabet was modeled after the Sogdian alphabet. Major epics from foreign cultures that mention Turks include the Igor Epic, the Nibelungen Epic, and the Shahnama. The first physical library in Turkish history was established by the Uygurs. The first Turkish poet is recorded as Aprin Çor Tigin.
Turkish-Islamic States and Cultural Synthesis
The Karahanlı State, founded by Bilge Kül Kadir Han, was the first to declare Islam as the official religion under Satuk Buğra Han, who took the name Abdülkerim. The first Karahanlı ruler to recognize the Abbasid Caliph Kadir Billah was Ilig Nasr Han. In the Gaznavid State, Sebük Tigin wrote the Pendname, a work detailing his political experiences for his son Mahmut. Gazneli Mahmut, known for his expeditions to India, was the first to use the title Sultan and was granted the titles Yeminüdevle and Eminül Mille by the Caliph. The scientist Biruni was described by Mahmut as the most valuable treasure of his palace. The Great Seljuk State was founded by descendants of Dukak Bey, nicknamed Demir Yaylı (Iron Bow). The Seljuks first collectively converted to Islam in the city of Cend. Key battles against the Byzantines included the Battle of Zap River, the Battle of Pasinler (led by Ibrahim Yinal), and the Battle of Malazgirt (fought on the Rahve Plain).
Other significant states in the Islamic period include the Mamluks, Ayyubids, and various Anatolian Beiliks. The Mamluks successfully defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ayn Jalut. In Anatolia, the Artukoğulları are famous for architectural works like the Malabadi Bridge. The Saltuklular, based in Erzurum, featured a rare female ruler, Mama Hatun. The First Hospital in Anatolia is recorded as the Gevher Nesibe Darüşşifa. Scientific and literary figures of this era include Ibn Sina, whose works include El Kanun Fi Tip and Kitabül Şifa, and Farabi, known as Muallim-i Sani (The Second Teacher). Literary milestones include the first written works of Turkish-Islamic literature: Kutadgu Bilig, Atabetül Hakayık, Divan-i Lügat-it Türk, and Divan-i Hikmet. Ali Şir Nevai is recognized as the person who served the Turkish language most after Kaşgarlı Mahmut.
Ottoman State Culture and Administrative Structure
The Ottoman administrative center moved through various locations, starting with Saray-ı Atik in Istanbul, though the Topkapı Palace remained the primary administrative hub until the century. The Topkapı Palace consisted of three main sections: the Birun (outer), Enderun (inner), and Harem. The gate connecting the Birun and Enderun was the Babüssaade. Specific palace positions included the Mültezim, who collected taxes through the İltizam system. The registration of conquered lands was kept in the Tahrir Defteri, while the records of the Sultan’s decrees were kept in the Mühimme Defteri. The state’s legal and social organization was influenced by the Millet system, which categorized people by religious affiliation rather than ethnicity.
Military structures included the Kapıkulu Army, which served the Sultan directly and received a wage called Ulufe. The Janissary corps was a significant part of this army, and their education often began in the Acemi Ocağı. Naval units were led by the Kaptan-ı Derya. Social and economic policies were shaped by Fiscalism (maximizing treasury income) and Traditionalism (maintaining current balances). The official state bank, Ziraat Bankası, was founded during the late period by Mithat Paşa. Educational institutions ranged from the Sıbyan mektebi (primary) to the Medreses (higher education), where students were known as Softa and assistants as Muid.
Notable Ottoman scientists and artists included Akşemseddin, known as the father of microbiology, and Ali Kuşçu, an astronomer who presented his work Muhammediye to Mehmet II. Takiyuddin Mehmet established the first Ottoman observatory. In the arts, Osman Hamdi Bey became famous for paintings like the Tortoise Trainer. The architectural peak was reached with figures like Mimar Sinan and later Sedefkar Mehmet Ağa, who designed the Blue Mosque (Sultan Ahmet Mosque). The first woman painter in Ottoman history was Mihri Müşvik Hanım.
Ottoman Political History from Establishment to Rise
The Ottoman dynasty belongs to the Kayı branch of the Gün Han lineage of the Oghuz Turks. Their expansion began in the Bitinya region, settling in Ahlat, Karacadağ, and finally Söğüt. During the establishment period, contemporary states included the Ilkhanate, the Trebizond Empire, and the Byzantine Empire. The spiritual founder of the state is considered to be Şeyh Edebali. Under Orhan Bey, the Ottomans crossed into Rumeli and established the first mosque in Iznik, the Hacı Özbek Mosque. The first major defeat against a Crusader force in Europe occurred at the Ploşnik Break. Padişah Murat I was martyred by the Serbian knight Miloş Obilic after the First Battle of Kosovo. The period of the Interregnum (Fetret Devri) saw a power struggle between the sons of Bayezid I: Isa, Musa, Mehmet, and Süleyman.
Mehmet II (the Conqueror), who used the mahlas Avni, initiated the conquest of Istanbul and expanded into Otranto and Crimea. He was tutored by scholars like Akşemseddin and Molla Gürani. Successive rulers like Bayezid II faced internal threats such as the Cem Sultan incident and the Şahkulu rebellion. Selim I (the Grim) focused his expansion eastwards, conquering the Mamluks and gaining the title Hadimul Haremeyn Şerife (Servant of the Two Holy Cities). He died of a skin disease known as Çirpençe. Suleiman the Magnificent (the Lawgiver) led the empire to its peak, conquering Belgrade and Rhodes, and securing naval dominance at the Battle of Preveza. The Grand Vizier Sokullu Mehmet Paşa served under three sultans: Suleiman I, Selim II, and Murat III, providing administrative continuity.
Ottoman Stagnation, Decline, and Disintegration
The period of stagnation began with rulers like Selim II, the first sultan to stop the tradition of leading the army in person. The Zitvatorok Treaty of marked a loss of diplomatic protocol superiority against Austria. Internal revolts, such as the Celali rebellions and the Janissary revolts, weakened central authority. The Siege of Crete, lasting years, was finally concluded by Fazıl Ahmet Paşa. In the century, the Tulip Era (Lale Devri) saw the first attempts at modernization, including the establishment of the first private Turkish printing press by Ibrahim Müteferrika. This era ended with the Patrona Halil rebellion.
In the century, the empire faced nationalist revolts, starting with the Serbian revolt led by Kara Yorgi. The Greek War of Independence led to the Edirne Treaty in , making Greece the first minority to gain independence. Rulers like Mahmut II abolished the Janissary corps in an event known as Vaka-i Hayriye (The Auspicious Incident) and established modern institutions like the Takvim-i Vekayi (first official newspaper). The later part of the century was marked by the 93 War (1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War), where figures like Nene Hatun and Ahmed Muhtar Pasha defended the eastern fronts. The state eventually faced bankruptcy, leading to the Muharrem Decree and the establishment of the Duyun-u Umumiye (Public Debt Administration) to manage debts to European powers.
The National Struggle (Milli Mücadele) and the Birth of the Republic
The National Struggle began following the Armistice of Mudros in . Mustafa Kemal Pasha landed in Samsun on May , staying at the Mıntıka Palas Hotel. The Amasya Circular established the purpose and method of the struggle, stating that the independence of the nation would be saved by the nation's own determination and decision. The Erzurum Congress defined the national borders for the first time, and the Sivas Congress unified all regional resistance societies under the Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti. Resistance in the south was led by local heroes such as Şahin Bey in Antep and Sütçü İmam in Maraş.
The military phase of the struggle included the Battles of İnönü and the Battle of Sakarya, the latter being described by Mustafa Kemal as Melhame-i Kübra (the Great Bloodbath). Following the Great Offensive (Büyük Taarruz), the Mudanya Armistice was signed, leading to the Lausanne Peace Treaty in . The Republic was proclaimed on October , with Mustafa Kemal as the first President and Ismet İnönü as the first Prime Minister. Major reforms followed, including the abolition of the Caliphate, the Unification of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat), the adoption of the Civil Code, and the Alphabet Reform (1928).
Contemporary Turkish and World History
In the early century, the Basmachi Movement emerged in Turkistan to fight for independence from Russian rule, led by figures like Zeki Velidi Togan and initially Enver Pasha. In the West, the 1929 Global Economic Crisis caused significant upheaval, leading to the New Deal in the US and the adoption of Statism (Devletçilik) in Turkey. The Meiji Restoration in Japan and the rise of dictatorships in Europe (Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany) set the stage for World War II.
During World War II, Turkey maintained a policy of active neutrality, though it was pressured by both the Allies and the Axis. Post-war, the world was divided into the Eastern and Western blocs during the Cold War. Turkey joined NATO in following its participation in the Korean War. Internal politics saw the rise of the Democrat Party and the military coup. Regional conflicts like the Cyprus issue led to the Peace Operation. The modern era is characterized by the collapse of the USSR, the rise of the Turkic Republics, and global challenges such as the July coup attempt in Turkey and the COVID-19 pandemic.
Questions & Discussion
Which work defines the word Turk as the "age of maturity"? Divan-i Lügat-it Türk.
Which scientist named Anatolia "Minor Turkey" and Central Asia "Great Turkey"? Marco Polo.
In which early Central Asian culture was the eagle considered sacred? Afanesyova Culture.
Under which ruler and commanders did the European Huns first raid Anatolia? Uldız era, under Kursik and Basık.
What are Attila’s titles? Scourge of God, Master of Brave Nations, King Etzel.
What was the first international written treaty in Turkish history? Kuzey Şansi.
Who is the bureaucrat described as the Bismarck of the Turks? Tonyukuk.
Which city saw the first paper production outside of China? Samarkand.
Who was the first to use the title Sultan? Gazneli Mahmut.
Who founded the Ziraat Bank? Mithat Paşa.
What was the first official newspaper of the Ottoman State? Takvim-i Vekayi.
Who was the first President of the Hatay Republic? Tayfur Sökmen.
What is the name of the first domestically produced Turkish car? Devrim.
Who was the first person to reach space? Yuri Gagarin.
Where did the Corona Virus first emerge? Wuhan.
What is the name of the treaty that ended the Bosnian War? Dayton Agreement.
What is the nickname of Aliya Izzet Begovic? The Wise King (Bilge Kral).