Family Violence: History, Definitions, Theories, and Impact

Lecture 1 Notes: Family Violence

Introduction to Family Violence

• Family violence is a widespread societal problem, surprisingly common, and can unfortunately be intergenerational.
• It is identified as one of the leading contributors to today's societal issues.
• Examples of Family Violence Cases:
  • The "Diddy case" was cited as an example, referencing a vicious attack on a girlfriend.
  • Netflix documentaries like "Unknown Caller" and "Abducted in Plain Sight" are also examples of family violence.

Test Preparation Guidance

• There is not much overlap between class discussions and the textbook content.
• Students are responsible for knowing both the class notes and the textbook material and being able to distinguish between them.
• Class notes are considered slightly more important, but reading the textbook is still highly encouraged.
• Textbook questions on exams will likely cover topics not discussed in class to ensure students have read the material.

Topic 1: History, Definitions, Theories, and Methods

Historical Context of Family Violence

• Family violence has existed for as long as families have been around, indicating it is not a new phenomenon.
• Child Abuse in Ancient Times:
  • Documentation shows children have been abused since ancient times.
  • Infanticide (Killing of an infant or newborn):
    • Practiced as a means of population control.
    • Physical deformity, health issues, or even illegitimacy were considered legitimate reasons for killing a child, who was often perceived as a burden to the group.
  • Early Greek Philosophy: Aristotle recommended a law prohibiting the raising of children with disabilities, viewing them as burdens to society.
  • Cultural Practices: In some rural areas of China, female infanticide was commonly practiced.
  • An example of extreme cultural practice mentioned was in Papua New Guinea, where the only way for a boy to become a man was through the ingestion of semen.
• The "Rule of Thumb" Law:
  • In some cultures, men were historically permitted to beat their wives with a stick, provided it was no thicker than his thumb.
  • This rule was ironically intended as a more compassionate substitute for a previous law that allowed a "husband to beat his wife with any reasonable instrument."
  • Early $19^{th}$ Century Napoleonic Code: Legally permitted husbands to beat, punch, or permanently disfigure their wives for even minor disobedience.
• Recent Recognition as a Social Problem:
  • It is only relatively recently that family violence has been recognized as a social problem.
  • Child abuse came to the attention of researchers in the $1960s$.
  • Marital abuse gained recognition in the $1970s$.
  • Elder abuse was recognized in the $1980s$.

Defining Family Violence

• Initial Definition of Violence: "an act to carry out with the intention of or the act of harming others."
  • Problems: This definition is too restrictive, as it only considers physical violence and does not specify who the violence is directed towards.
  • It may reflect public perception rather than a comprehensive scholarly definition.
• Textbook Definition of Violence: "any act or omission of persons who are cohabiting resulting in serious injury to the family."
  • Problems:
    • This definition is too narrow, implying only "serious injury."
    • It suggests that individuals must be "cohabiting," yet post-cohabitation violence is very common, making it poorly worded.
    • The definition of "family" itself is not specific enough.
• Improved Definition: An important element in a good definition is an "act or omission by a family member that leads to or is perceived as being intended to lead to some form of harm to one or more family members." This wording is considered more correct.

Theories of Family Violence

• There has been significant disagreement over the years regarding the causes of family violence.
• Identifying the causes is crucial for effective prevention.

Macro Theories (Cultural and Structural Factors)

• A: Cultural Explanations - The Cultural Acceptance of Violence:
  • In some cultures, violence has not only been accepted but glorified.
  • Example: Hockey fights in the NHL are very Canadian but are glorified, with crowds becoming highly engaged; it's part of the culture (e.g., "went to a fight and a hockey game broke out").
  • This leads to a "spill-over effect," where accepting violence in cultural contexts can transfer into family relationships. For instance, if a culture accepts physical violence to train children, it may also allow similar behavior within families.
• B: Patriarchy:
  • Classically defined as the supremacy of the father over family members and the domination of men over women and children in all aspects of life and culture.
  • Four Contemporary Cultural Views Identified as Patriarchal and Promoting Male Violence Against Women:
    1. The greater authority of men in our culture.
    2. The use of male aggression to express male identity.
    3. The male domination of aggression in the Criminal Justice System (CJS), arguing the system works less effectively for aggressive women than for men.
    4. The reinforcement of wife/mother roles as the preferred status for women.
• C: Subculture of Violence (Certain Groups within Society):
  • Specific groups within society may accept violence differently.
  • Example: Low socioeconomic status groups.
  • Bowker's finding: The extent to which an abusive husband is a member of certain male peer subcultures is positively associated with the extent to which he beats his wife.
• Structural Characteristics of Families:
  • Time at Risk: Individuals are more likely to be victimized by family members because they spend more time with them.
  • More Intense Emotions: Family relationships often involve more intense emotions.
  • Family Life is Considered Private: People are reluctant to get involved in others' personal family business; police often perceive family violence calls as more dangerous.
• D: Deterrence Theory (Costs are Low):
  • Hirshi's View: Humans are antisocial at birth and require society to maintain control.
  • Stakes in Conformity: Factors that deter individuals from committing violent acts:
    1. Commitment to conventional goals.
    2. Involvement in conventional (normal, typical) activities.
    3. Having attachment to significant others (e.g., not wanting to disappoint parents).
    4. Beliefs that violence is wrong.
  • Individuals with few "stakes in conformity" (lacking $1-4$ above) are more prone to committing violent acts.
  • Domestic Violence Policies: Mandatory arrest policies have been shown to reduce reoffending (recidivism).
  • People with more stakes are less likely to offend.
• E: Frustration-Aggression Theory:
  • Scapegoat: A person or group unfairly blamed for violence or crime.
  • Aggression often follows frustration arising from blocked goals.
  • This theory suggests receiving displaced aggression, and families are particularly susceptible to becoming scapegoats.

Micro Theories (Individual Level)

• 1. Socialization / Learning Explanations:
  • A) Operant Conditioning:
    • Shaping behavior in a step-by-step fashion.
    • Example: If a wife doesn't iron her husband's pants, he hits her. The next day, the pants are ironed, thus the violence has been rewarded.
  • B) Social Learning Theory:
    • A psychological concept of modeling.
    • Involves learning behavior by observing and imitating others.
    • Learning in the observer is strengthened through the observation of rewards and punishments dispensed to the model, leading to "learnt violence" as a solution.
  • C) Most Popular Explanation: This theory is popular due to two key observations:
    1. Intergenerational Transmission of Violence (aka the Cycle of Violence Theory): Exposure to violence in childhood has a strong correlation with perpetrating or being victimized in adulthood.
    2. Aggression Can Be Learned Through Modeling: Demonstrated by a YouTube video of children modeling aggression.
  • Weakness: A significant weakness is that many children who witness or experience violence do not become violent themselves.
    • Approximately $25-35\%$ of victims/witnesses do not go on to become abusers or victims, while $65-75\%$ do.
• 2. Individual / Intrapersonal Difference Theories:
  • A) Psychopathology:
    • Attributes family violence to mental illness, personality disorders, or individual defects.
    • This theory can only explain a small portion of family violence; however, the more violent an individual, the more likely psychopathology may be present.

Textbook Notes - Chapter 1

Definition of Family Violence

• The definition of family violence remains a topic of controversy.
• Textbook Definition: "any act or omission by one family member against another that causes harm, risk or suffering."
• This definition includes spouse abuse, child abuse, sibling violence, elder abuse, and violence in dating relationships.
• It emphasizes that violence is NOT just physical; it also encompasses emotional, sexual, financial, and neglectful behaviors.

Historical Perspectives (Textbook)

• Early Society: Violence within families was often tolerated and ignored.
• Patriarchal Tradition: Historically, husbands held legal and social authority to discipline wives and children.
  • Rule of Thumb: Husbands were permitted to beat wives with a stick, provided it was no thicker than the width of his thumb.
• Children: Corporal punishment and child labor were once widely accepted.
• Advocacy Movements: The Women's Rights Movement and Child Protection Movement in the $19^{th}$ and $20^{th}$ centuries brought greater recognition of abuse.
• Elder Abuse: Only gained significant recognition recently, in the late $20^{th}$ century.

Myths About Family Violence

1. Family violence is rare: In reality, it is widespread across all social classes, cultures, and economic levels.
2. Only poor people experience family violence: It occurs in all societal groups, although poverty can intensify related stressors.
3. Alcohol/drugs cause family violence: While these substances may increase risk, they are not identified as the root cause of the violence itself.
4. Victims provoke abusers: This a victim-blaming perspective that fails to recognize the abuser's control and responsibility.
5. Family violence is a private matter: Historically shielded from public view, it is now increasingly viewed as a societal issue.

Theories of Family Violence (Textbook Specific)

• Psychiatric Model: Attempts to understand family violence by analyzing an offender's personality traits and mental status.
  • Psychopathology Theory: Proposes that certain individuals suffer from mental illness, personality disorders, and other dysfunctions that cause them to engage in aggressive acts within the family.
    • Problem: This model often fails to adequately explain which specific personality traits are associated with family violence.
  • Substance Abuse Theory: Posits that drugs or alcohol cause or contribute to family violence by impairing judgment and lessening inhibitions, thereby allowing violent acts to occur. It is sometimes seen as an excuse for violent behavior.
• Social-Psychological Model: Analyzes external environmental factors that affect the family unit, such as stress, family structure, intergenerational transmission of violence, and family interactions, viewing them as primary causes.
  • Social Learning Theory: Assumes that the type of behavior most frequently reinforced by others is the one most often exhibited by an individual.
    • It integrates differential associations with differential reinforcements, meaning that people with whom one interacts reinforce behaviors that lead to learning both deviant and non-deviant actions.
    • This process is achieved through two important mechanisms: Modeling and Reinforcement.
    • Criticism: This theory has been criticized for failing to explain certain kinds of spontaneous acts of aggression within the family.
• Exchange Theory:
  • Based on the premise that individuals act according to a system of rewards or punishments.
  • Argues that family violence is based on a determination of costs and rewards.
  • Gelles modified this theory specifically to apply to family violence situations.
• Frustration-Aggression Theory:
  • Based on the premise that human beings display aggression toward objects that impede their achievement of certain goals.
  • Failure to obtain certain goals within a family leads to frustration, which in turn leads to aggression.
  • Criticism: This theory is considered insufficient for explaining the complexities of modern society.
• Ecological Theory:
  • Based on an analysis of the organism (individual) and the environment, focusing on the interacting systems in which family development occurs and the broader environment in which the family resides.
  • Garbarino's Two Conditions for Child Abuse:
    1. The environment in which the family lives must accept the use of force against children.
    2. The family must be isolated from supporting community services or systems.
  • This theory assumes that family violence occurs when the parent, child, and family are mismatched with the neighborhood and community.
  • Children with disabilities or those considered below the expected norm in society face the highest risk of abuse under this theory.
• Sociobiology / Evolutionary Theory:
  • Based on the concept that parents may display aggressive acts toward children who are not their own offspring or who do not have the potential to reproduce.
• Sociocultural Model of Family Violence:
  • Focuses on the roles of men and women in society, cultural attitudes toward women, and the acceptance of violence as causes of family violence.
  • A macro-level analysis that focuses on variables causing violence.
  • Culture of Violence Theory: Based on the premise that violence is unevenly distributed within society and is more prevalent in lower socioeconomic sectors.
• Violence and the Media:
  • Television, music, and video games have a direct impact on everyday life, especially for children and teenagers.
  • Positive Effects of Media:
    1. Cognitive Skills: Television can be effective in developing a variety of academic skills like reading and math (e.g., Sesame Street).
    2. Academic Content: Many forms of knowledge are presented through television (e.g., Discovery Channel, History Channel).
    3. Prosocial Behavior: Studies support that children can learn positive behavior patterns, such as cooperation.
    4. Nutrition and Health: A wide range of information regarding public health issues is conveyed, from pollution-related beach closures to advances in medicine.
    5. Social and Political Issues: The nature of democracy is explored, for example, during presidential election coverage.
  • Negative Impacts of Media:
    1. Lack of Exercise: Watching television is inherently sedentary and takes time away from healthier activities.
    2. Unhealthy Eating Habits: Many people snack while watching TV, which, combined with lack of exercise, can lead to increased weight.
    3. Solitary in Nature: Television is often a solitary activity, reducing meaningful social interaction with family, friends, and others.
    4. Behavioral Messages: The proposition that television desensitizes youth to violence and other forms of unacceptable social behavior.

National Family Violence Surveys

• Two of the most comprehensive studies of family violence were conducted by Murray Straus and Richard J. Gelles in $1975$ and $1985$.
• In both surveys, violence was defined as "An act carried out with the intention or perceived intention of causing physical pain or injury to another person."
• Acts of violence with a high probability of injury were included, even if no actual injury occurred.
• Violence was measured using the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS), developed at the University of New Hampshire in $1971$ and still in use today.
• The CTS measures three variables:
  1. Rational discussion and agreement.
  2. Use of verbal and nonverbal expressions of hostility.
  3. Use of physical force or violence.

Scope of the Problem

• Reasons for Underreporting:
  • Fear of retaliation from the abuser.
  • Shame and stigma associated with being a victim of violence.
  • Financial dependency on the abuser.
  • Distrust in authorities or the justice system.
• Consequences of Family Violence:
  • Physical injury.
  • Psychological impacts such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety.
  • Long-term health problems.
• Cycle of Violence: Children exposed to violence are more likely to perpetuate it later in life.