Political Science Knowledge Construction and Regime Analysis and Regime Types
Constructing Knowledge in Political Science
Political scientists construct knowledge and communicate explanations by observing political systems, institutional interactions, and behaviors.
The construction of knowledge typically follows a scientific process that emulates scientific theory:
Generating research questions.
Developing hypotheses.
Testing hypotheses through scientific observation.
Refining conclusions based on data.
Comparison to Natural Sciences:
Hard sciences, such as chemistry, deal with deterministic and quantifiable elements like covalence electrons. These can be measured and observed discretely, allowing for concrete conclusions.
Political science data is more "slippery" and harder to define because it involves complex social interactions.
Because measurements in political science are less discrete, the predictive capacity of the field is more limited.
Communication of Inferences:
There is a market incentive for leaders, writers, and researchers to make grand claims to build credibility and ensure their conclusions are taken seriously.
Students of political science must be skeptical of grand claims, as it is difficult to establish fundamental truths about social interaction.
Empirical and Normative Analysis
Empirical Analysis:
Also referred to as positive statements.
Empirical data is based on observable history and facts that contain no value judgments.
Examples include election results, polling data, and the historical fact of a government passing a law.
A positive statement describes reality as it is. For example: "The US GDP is ."
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data:
Political scientists often attempt to use quantitative practices on qualitative data to make it manageable.
One must be skeptical of this process; treating rounded or approximated qualitative data as if it has the same determinant powers as hard quantitative data leads to inaccuracies. If measurements are off by small amounts, the final rounded conclusions will be inherently flawed.
Normative Analysis:
Normative statements are value statements that suggest a course of action or evaluate what is "good" or "bad."
Example: "GDP growth is good for social cohesion." This statement can be debated but is inherently value-laden because it suggests a specific goal (growing the GDP) is desirable.
Causation and Correlation
Causation:
Causation is extremely difficult to determine in comparative politics because social systems are not discrete.
A causal relationship means that when one event happens, it specifically causes the effect in another.
Social fields involve many complex variables interacting in ways that are often unaccounted for by researchers.
Correlation:
Correlation is identifyng an association or pattern between two or more variables.
A pattern between two things does not necessarily reflect a causal relationship; it may be the result of an external factor affecting both variables.
Example: A correlation exists between the release of Nicolas Cage movies and the number of shark attacks in the same year. While the data may align, one does not cause the other.
Foundations of Democracy and Authoritarianism
Democracy and authoritarianism are frames of reference for understanding government decision-making.
Rule of Law:
This is a bedrock principle indicating the degree of democracy or authoritarianism.
It dictates that a state is governed by law, not by the individual whims of government officials.
Laws are above the people working within the government; even if a law is inconvenient or undesirable, it must be followed until it is legally changed through established procedures.
Role of the Media:
Authoritarian states often necessitate deep control over communications (television, telephone, internet) and regulate public information to maintain power.
In democratic contexts, state-funded media can exist without being authoritarian. For example, the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) is tax-financed, which allows it to function without needing to be popular for readership or commercial success. The government provides resources, but journalists maintain editorial independence, helping to inform the public.
Elements of Free and Fair Elections
For an election to be democratic, it must be both free and fair.
Free Elections:
Participation must be low-cost or costless for both voters and candidates.
There should be no restrictive systems preventing candidates from appearing on the ballot. In Iran, the Guardian Council vets and can block any candidate without an appeals process, making elections un-free.
Citizen participation must be unrestricted. In the US during the Jim Crow era, legal and social barriers materially reduced black voting participation, rendering those elections less free.
Fair Elections:
Fairness depends on campaign equity and the handling of votes.
Elections are unfair if state media only provides visibility to preferred candidates.
Manipulation of voting rules can also affect fairness. In Russia, the government has adjusted thresholds in proportional representation to create a fractious opposition. By splitting opposition votes among multiple small parties (e.g., communists and Nazis rather than a single group of ), the ruling party remains more secure.
Transparency and Citizen Participation
Government Transparency:
Democratic governments generally broadcast proceedings (e.g., C-SPAN) so the public can observe decision-making.
Some democracies have specific rules; for example, it is illegal in the United Kingdom to broadcast footage of the British Parliament in a humorous or unflattering way. This prevented satirical programs like John Oliver’s from using parliamentary footage in the UK, even though critics can still speak against Parliament.
Nature of Citizen Participation:
The mere existence of elections does not guarantee democracy. In China, elections occur, but they do not grant material power; citizens do not vote for the offices that make substantive policy decisions.
Categories of Political Regimes
Independent vs. Overlapping Branches:
Democratic regimes typically have independent branches of government.
Authoritarian regimes feature overlapping branches or mechanisms where one branch limits the influence of others.
Illiberal Democracy (Hybrid Regime):
These regimes hold elections, but they are not freely available or fair. Russia is a primary example.
One-Party States:
Participation is limited to a single party. In China, to be on a ballot, one must be a member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
Theocracy:
Governments built on religious principles, such as Iran.
Totalitarian Government:
An individual or small group makes all decisions, using state power to punish enemies or entice allies with rewards (e.g., state jobs).
Military Regime:
Often occurs when government structures crumble and become ineffective. The military takes control and enforces its rule through violence.
Questions & Discussion
Question: Can a country fit into multiple categories, such as Iran being both a theocracy and a military regime?
Response: Yes. Categorization in political science is not always a perfect fit for a single "square" category. Countries like Iran are non-Western and do not possess clearly organized legislative, judicial, or executive branches. Because power is often delegated differently across various areas of governance, a country may hit components of several different regime types. For example, some decisions might be made according to theocratic rules while the enforcement of those laws is handled like a military regime.