Ch 12 Pt 1 Anthropology of Religion – Chapter 12 Review

Course Context & Exam Scope

• Final exam will cover Chapters 12–15; current focus is Chapter 12: Religion.

• Instructor’s goals:

  • Introduce anthropological tools for comparing religion, magic, and other belief systems.

  • Examine major world religions and their on-the-ground variations.

  • Trace how globalization & colonial histories reshape contemporary religious practice.

Anthropology of Religion: Comparative Frame

• Anthropologists place all belief systems on an analytically equal footing; no hierarchy that privileges formal religion over magic, science, or secular worldviews.

• Key comparative dimensions:

  • Beliefs about supernatural beings/forces.

  • Behaviors (rituals, everyday practices, narratives) tied to those beings/forces.

  • Frequency & regularity of enactment (weekly mass, annual festival, once-every-5-years ancestor ritual among Taiwanese Aborigines, etc.).

Core Definitions & Distinctions

• Religion: Culturally patterned beliefs & practices concerning supernatural beings or forces.

  • Usually anchored in canonical texts (e.g., Bible, Torah, Qur’an) yet realized in locally varied ways.

• Worldview: Broader cognitive map explaining how reality came to be & what humans are meant to do.

  • Every person (even atheists) has a worldview; religion is only one possible form.

  • Example (Christianity): Earth created by God → humans tasked with stewardship of plants & animals.

  • Example (Atheist cosmology): \text{Big Bang} \rightarrow \text{universe forms}; humans are biologically contingent, potentially non-special.

• Supernatural Beings vs. Forces:

  • Beings possess agency, personality (gods, ancestors, spirits).

  • Forces are impersonal powers (mana, qi, luck).

• Magic (witchcraft, spell-casting, voodoo):

  • Often treated as marginal or “illegitimate” by mainstream religions, yet anthropologically coequal.

• Science: Western empirical realism; from an anthropological stance its truth claims are not automatically ranked above those of magic or religion—each is studied via people’s narratives & behaviors.

Rituals & Repetition

• Ritual = Recurrent, formalized action oriented toward the supernatural.

  • Cadence can be weekly, yearly, multi-year (e.g., 5-year ancestral visit of Taiwanese Aborigines).

  • Reinforces collective memory & emotional commitment.

Variations Inside Major World Religions

• Although Christianity, Islam, Judaism, etc. share textual cores, local practice diverges:

  • Different behavioral norms, cosmological emphases, ritual calendars.

  • Anthropologists document these intra-religious differences rather than assume homogeneity.

Globalization, Colonialism & Religious Change

• Colonial missions, modern migration, and global media circulate religions worldwide.

• Feedback loop: religions transform host societies & are themselves re-interpreted by new followers.

Magic: Anthropological Theorizing (James Frazer)

• Frazer identified two laws that organize much magical thinking:

  1. Law of Similarity (Imitative Magic)

  • "Like produces like"; copying a person/object channels its power.

  • Example: Wearing full Michael Jordan gear → shooter believes skill is enhanced.

  1. Law of Contagion (Contagious Magic)

  • Former physical contact creates enduring mystical connection.

  • Example: Using shoes actually worn by Jordan or shaking his hand & never washing → perceived transfer of talent.

• Black Magic: Malicious use of similarity/contagion (e.g., voodoo doll, harvesting nails/saliva).

• Case Studies & Illustrations:

  • Water Witching (Dowsing) in drought-stricken California: practitioners walk fields holding metal rods to locate subterranean water; treated by farmers as empirical utility though outsiders label it “magic.”

  • Malaysia/Facebook Photo Hex (CNET report): Government warns users that shamans might download profile photos to inflict sickness—raises analytical question: does this rely on similarity (image resembles you) or contagion (digital image once connected to you)?

  • Sports Superstition: Lucky bats, ritual socks—often blend similarity & contagion.

Science, Religion & Magic: Epistemological Equality

• Anthropological cultural relativism avoids ranking belief systems.

• Evidence base for each system:

  • Science: laboratory results, sensory verification.

  • Religion: believers’ narratives & ritual practice.

  • Magic: practitioner testimony & observable magical rites.

• Goal: Understand how people believe, not adjudicate whether beliefs are "true."

Myths & Doctrines: Two Pillars of Religious Belief

• Myth: Oral or written stories about supernatural beings/forces.

  • Functions:

  1. Moral instruction (teach good vs. bad behavior).

  2. Cognitive coherence (resolve contradictions/confusion about reality).

  3. Ecological management (embed resource-use rules in sacred narrative).

  • Examples:

  • Christian Genesis → stewardship ethic (resource management).

  • Taiwanese Bunong myth: adultery/theft turn offenders into monkeys or wild boars (moral lesson; deterrence via threat of de-humanization).

  • Raven stories among Pacific Northwest Native Americans: Raven as trickster/creator mediates cosmic paradoxes (contradiction resolution).

• Doctrine: Formal, systematic statements of religious principles (creeds, catechisms).

  • Often codified by institutions; provides interpretive lens for myths & rituals.

Ethical & Methodological Implications for Anthropologists

• Must employ cultural relativism: suspend personal judgment to accurately represent participant perspectives.

• Take seriously practitioners’ own categories (sacred vs. profane, licit vs. illicit).

• Recognize power dynamics: labeling something “magic” vs. “religion” can reflect colonial or missionary hierarchies.

Instructor’s Extra-Credit Prompt (practical application)

• Apply either law of similarity or law of contagion (or both) to explain the Malaysian shaman-photo case.

• Submit response before the upcoming Saturday for bonus points.

Ch 12 Pt 2 Religion: Doctrines, Rituals, Sacred Space & Pilgrimage

Sacredness of Ravens

• Many Native American communities revere the raven as a sacred being.

  • Mythic role: Raven reincarnates, steals the sun from a “Sun Chief,” and places it in the sky so humans can have light.

  • The story reconciles an ecological dilemma: ravens are scavengers (eat meat yet do not kill).

  • Positions ravens between strict categories of “herbivore” and “carnivore.”

  • Sacred framing helps resolve how to classify a meat-eating but non-predatory animal.

Doctrines & World-View Definitions

• Doctrine = the explicit, usually written, statement of a religion’s beliefs.

  • Defines: supernatural beings/forces, cosmology, moral order, human role.

  • Example: In many Abrahamic traditions one supreme being, human-like in image, creates the world in 7 days, appoints humans as stewards.

• Typically written, formal, and characteristic of large-scale, text-based religions for easy reference by adherents.

Typologies of Supernatural Beings & Forces

• Impersonal forces: not person-like (e.g., animism, mana).

• Animal-like deities: found in Hinduism and other traditions.

• Human-like: single god or multiple gods (e.g., ancient Greek pantheon).

• Ancestors as supernatural: common in many oral traditions—deceased relatives gain power after death.

Sacred Space

• Three broad forms:

  1. Permanent sacred space

  • Purpose-built: temples, churches, synagogues, mosques, etc.

  1. Becoming/temporary sacred space

  • Ordinary setting made sacred when ritual activity occurs (e.g., reading scripture or praying in a classroom).

  1. Natural sacred landscape

  • Specific geographic features (mountains, rivers, lakes) hold spiritual significance known mainly to insiders.

• Australian case: Ngarrindjeri women’s secret waters.

  • Sacred knowledge gender-restricted (only female custodians).

  • Government bridge project ignored claims → legal battle lost; bridge built; some locals later crossed the once-sacred waters—illustrates tensions between indigenous spirituality, secrecy, and state development.

Ritual: Repetitive, Patterned Behavior

• May occur weekly, monthly, yearly.

• Can be religious or secular.

  • Example of secular ritual: graduation ceremony.

Life-Cycle (Rite-of-Passage) Rituals

• Anthropological tri-partition (van Gennep & Turner):

  1. Separation

  2. Liminal/Transition

  3. Re-integration

• DMV driver’s-license example (U.S. cultural metaphor for adulthood):

  • Separation: entering DMV, apart from community.

  • Liminal: written/driving test—uncertainty whether passage completed.

  • Re-integration: receiving results, rejoining family/friends; new social status if passed.

• Framework equally applicable to graduation, weddings, etc.

Pilgrimage

• Defined as a round-trip journey to a sacred place for devotion.

• Classic Islamic example: Hajj to Mecca (one of the 5 pillars).

• Taiwanese example previewed (see Matsu section): multi-county trek following goddess statue.

Rituals of Inversion

• Temporary reversal of social norms/roles.

  • Sardinia carnival: gender role inversion—men wear high heels, bikinis, pregnancy simulators; women enact male roles.

  • Highlights cultural flexibility and social commentary.

Sacrifice

• Offering to supernatural forces; may include plants, animals, or humans.

• Historical human sacrifice: 16^{th}-century Aztecs offered captives to gods.

• Trend over time: shift from human → animal → floral/vegetal offerings.

• Cultural-materialist explanation: rulers used spectacular human sacrifice to display power and legitimize authority (secular political motive cloaked in religious language).

Case Study: Matsu (Mazu) Pilgrimage — Taiwan

• Celebrates birthday of sea-goddess Matsu.

• Timing: spring; duration ≈ 9 nights / 8 days.

• Logistics & Devotion:

  • Follows goddess statue in palanquin across many counties (e.g., Riverside → Orange analogy).

  • Physical & mental challenge tests devotee commitment.

  • Devotees sometimes prostrate on roads to receive blessing when palanquin passes (photo: elderly woman lying face-down).

• Cross-strait dimension: some believers travel between mainland China and Taiwan.

• Research resource: Discovery Channel documentary (lower resolution but closed-captioned).

• Extra-credit prompt (course-specific): students may analyze pilgrimage in terms of myth, doctrine, or ritual.

World Religions Overview (Upcoming Section)

• Label “world religions” reserved for large, often text-based faiths with transnational followings:

  • Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and an umbrella category “African religions.”

• Note: grouping many diverse African traditions into one category is simplistic, and many are not text-based—an issue to explore in next lecture.

Ch 12 Pt 3 Anthropological Perspectives on World Religions

Anthropological Approaches to World Religions

• Anthropologists study major world religions through two complementary lenses:

  • Textual Analysis: Close reading of scriptures, commentaries, hymns, laws, and other canonical or semi-canonical writings.

  • Lived Practice / Ethnography: Observation of ritual, prayer, pilgrimage, festivals, and everyday behavior in diverse locales.

• Key anthropological concern: how global religions are re-shaped by local cultures as they spread and how believers make doctrines meaningful in particular social settings.

• Methodological stance: cultural relativism—suspend ethnocentric judgments, focus on internal logics and local interpretations.

Key Analytical Concepts: Religious Pluralism vs. Religious Syncretism

• Medical pluralism (review from previous lecture): coexistence of multiple healing systems (e.g., biomedicine, Ayurveda, shamanism, TCM) within one society.

• Religious pluralism (parallel concept):

  • Multiple religions operate side-by-side in the same geographic or social space.

  • Each tradition retains its own identity; little or no doctrinal blending.

  • Example: Southern California hosts Hindu temples, Buddhist centers, synagogues, mosques, churches, etc.

• Religious syncretism:

  • Two or more religious systems merge or borrow heavily from one another, creating a hybrid form.

  • Can occur at individual, communal, or institutional levels.

Hinduism: Local Variations and Contemporary Issues

• Not a single monolith; better described as a family of religious systems.

• Core structural features:

  • Polytheism: innumerable deities, yet undergirded by a philosophical notion of oneness (Brahman).

  • Caste (varna / jati) hierarchy mirrored in cosmic order; even deities occupy graded ranks.

• Karma:

  • Moral law of cause and effect spanning current and prior lives.

  • Western proverb equivalent: “you reap what you sow.”

  • Field example (Britain): Hindu women interpret marital problems, including domestic violence, through the lens of karma—some see fate as immutable, others believe effort can alter karmic outcomes.

• Yoga in Western pop culture:

  • Marketed largely as a secular fitness regimen.

  • Hindu activists critique this as cultural appropriation, arguing that spiritual/ethical dimensions tied to Hindu philosophy are ignored.

• Textbook controversy in California:

  • State sought input from scholars and Hindu community members to ensure public-school curricula portray Hinduism accurately and respectfully.

Buddhism: Origins, Core Concepts, Local Adaptations

• Historical background:

  • Emerged in India as a protest against caste-based inequality.

  • Founder: Siddhārtha Gautama (Gautama Buddha), who attained enlightenment.

• Doctrinal spectrum:

  • Some sects venerate Buddha as a deity; others stress Buddha as a teacher whose path is to be emulated, not worshipped.

• Karma retained but reframed: present suffering or joy traced to deeds in this or previous lives—seek insight into causal chains.

• Geographic dispersion & pluralism:

  • Practiced widely in Asia, North America, Europe.

  • Myanmar example: individuals celebrate Buddhist holy days yet turn to local spirit cults for day-to-day issues—an instance of religious pluralism within one believer’s repertoire.

• Modern pop-culture interface:

  • 2019 Pokémon GO anecdote: A Japanese Buddhist temple designated as an in-game “gym.” Monks invited players to charge phones and learn about Buddhism—illustrates adaptive outreach and techno-religious hybridity.

Judaism: Text, Identity, Dietary Law, and Syncretism

• Foundational narrative: Exile and Return.

  • Ancestors enslaved in Egypt, escaped, then wandered the desert for (40) years.

• Sacred text: Torah (first five books of Hebrew Bible); shares patriarchal stories with Christian Old Testament and is referenced in the Quran.

• Defining Jewishness:

  • Traditional / Orthodox: matrilineal descent—one’s mother must be Jewish.

  • Reform movement: either parent’s Jewish identity suffices; reflects modernizing trend.

  • Status is ascribed at birth rather than achieved.

• Kashrut (Kosher) regulations:

  • No meat mixed with dairy.

  • Prohibition of pork (considered unclean).

  • Seafood must have fins and scales; shellfish, eels excluded.

  • Numerous other rules covering slaughter, kitchen separation, Passover-specific leaven bans, etc.

• Passover (Pesach): ritual meal commemorating Exodus and desert hardships.

• Case studies of syncretism:

  • Kerala, India: Jewish community blends Hindu notions of purity/pollution into kosher observance—illustrates religious syncretism.

  • Downtown Los Angeles: Mexican restaurant operates under kosher supervision to serve local Jewish clientele—creative adaptation of dietary law to multicultural cuisine.

Comparative and Cross-Cutting Themes

• Text vs. Practice: Sacred writings lay foundations, yet everyday religion is molded by local cultural logics, political economy, and popular media.

• Ethics & Identity:

  • All three traditions wrestle with how doctrine informs moral behavior (e.g., karma, kosher, Noble Eightfold Path) and how identity boundaries are policed or relaxed.

• Power & Inequality:

  • Caste tensions in Hinduism/Buddhism, gendered experiences of karma, and debates over Jewish descent rules highlight stratification.

• Modern Challenges:

  • Globalization, diaspora, and digital media (Pokémon GO, yoga studios, fusion restaurants) create new venues for both appreciation and appropriation.

• Anthropological significance: Examining pluralism and syncretism reveals how religions are dynamic, contested, and deeply embedded in sociocultural contexts rather than static, isolated belief systems.

Ch 12 Pt 4 World Religions – Christianity, Islam, African Religions & Contemporary Transformations

Christianity

• General

  • Identified as one of the largest world religions.

  • Shares historical/lineage connections with Judaism and (from some Islamic perspectives) with Islam through the figure of Jesus.

  • Core sacred text: the Holy Bible.

  • Extremely diverse; subdivides into many denominations and localized expressions.

• Major Denominations & Worship Styles

  • Quaker (Society of Friends)

  • Worship centers on silence, inward reflection, communal testimony.

  • No formal preacher leading the service.

  • Common in the U.S. Mid-Atlantic (e.g.
    Pennsylvania).

  • Pentecostal

  • Characterized by glossolalia (“speaking in tongues”).

  • Emphasizes ecstatic worship and direct experience of the Holy Spirit.

  • Appalachian Protestant Traditions

  • Practices such as foot-washing and snake-handling taken as literal enactments of biblical passages.

  • Snake-handling viewed as a test of faith (belief that true believers will not be harmed by venomous bites).

    • Real-world consequence: documented fatalities among pastors/participants who were bitten.

• Inculturation / Local Adaptations

  • Fijian Communal Eating & the Last Supper

  • Fijian hierarchical meal seating mirrors the biblical depiction of Jesus (central) with disciples ordered by rank.

  • Illustrates how scriptural narratives can map onto indigenous social structures.

  • Taiwanese Aboriginal (Presbyterian) Example

  • Majority of Indigenous Taiwanese are Presbyterian.

  • Church policy encourages worship in native languages & symbols.

  • Example: facade decorated with a sacred snake motif—an Aboriginal holy symbol—showing syncretism between Christianity and local cosmology.

Islam

• General

  • Second largest world religion (2^{\text{nd}} in global followers).

  • Based on the revelations given to the Prophet Muhammad.

  • Shares Abrahamic roots with Judaism & Christianity.

• Internal Diversity

  • Multiple branches (e.g., Sunni, Shia) and innumerable local variations.

  • Identical rituals can differ by context:

  • In one country only men may perform a rite; in another the same rite is family-based.

• Islam in China

  • Significant Muslim populations in northern & western provinces live among Han Chinese.

  • Cultural hallmark: Halal Chinese cuisine—integrates Islamic dietary law with regional Chinese flavors.

  • Popularized internationally (e.g., restaurants in Anaheim, CA; first encountered by lecturer in Toronto, Canada).

• Research / Gender & Health Example

  • Study on Middle Eastern women’s health argues traditional gender roles (household centrality, heavy responsibilities), not religion per se, most strongly affect well-being.

  • Field-work cautions:

  • Male researchers may be restricted by gender-separation norms.

  • Necessity for same-gender research partners or cultural mediators.

  • Some health questions considered inappropriate depending on local etiquette.

African Religions (Umbrella Category)

• Text vs. Oral Tradition

  • Many are non-textual; knowledge transmitted orally or via ritual performance.

  • Some, like Rastafarianism, reference written scripture (e.g., the Bible) and Judeo-Christian symbols (Star of David).

• Rastafarianism

  • Origin story links Ethiopia as the spiritual homeland; Haile Selassie regarded as messianic figure.

  • Popularized globally by reggae music (e.g., Bob Marley’s “Africa Unite”).

  • Key practices/markers:

  • Dreadlocks as identity statement.

  • Ital diet: minimally processed, mostly plant-based foods “from the ground.”

  • Migration narrative: African-descended peoples relocating to/visiting Ethiopia (“return to motherland”).

• Other African-diaspora Religions

  • Present in South America and the Caribbean.

  • Often serve dual functions:

  • Stress relief amidst social upheaval.

  • Ethnic or personal identity construction.

Religious Change, Revitalization & Globalization

• Revitalization Movements

  • Ghost Dance (Native American): millenarian dance hoped to restore ancestral ways & remove colonial powers.

  • Cargo Cults (Melanesia)

  • Emerged post-WWII when locals saw airplanes/cargo drops.

  • Interpreted goods as gifts from ancestors; built ritual systems anticipating yearly returns.

• Conflict & Contestation over Sacred Space

  • Jerusalem: overlapping claims of multiple world religions; archaeological digs spark controversy.

  • India: clashes between Hindus & Muslims; the rise of Sikhism partly as a response to inter-religious tensions.

• Endangered / Disappearing Traditions

  • Paiwan (Taiwan) Five-Year Ceremony

  • Occurs every 5 years to welcome ancestral spirits from sacred mountains.

  • Requires extensive communal preparation (feasts, rituals).

  • Youth urban migration → dwindling participation → threat of ritual extinction.

Comparative Anthropology of Religion, Magic & Science (Closing Themes)

• Anthropological stance: avoid ranking religion, magic, and science hierarchically as “superior/inferior.”

• Emphasis on context, function, and meaning rather than judgment.

• Recognition that globalization, colonialism, and socio-economic change continually reshape all three domains.

Practical Takeaways for Students / Researchers

• Expect intra-religious diversity; “one religion” ≠ uniform practice.

• Approach fieldwork with cultural humility—gender, sacred-space, and ritual sensitivities are paramount.

• Observe how global religions localize through food, language, art, and spatial arrangement.

• Monitor how modernization pressures (urbanization, migration) can erode or transform ritual life.

• Study revitalization movements as creative cultural responses to historical trauma and political change.