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What does James Rachels argue? Different cultural rules do not prove there are no objective moral truths. What is cultural relativism? The belief that morality depends entirely on culture. What does Rachels say about moral mistakes? People can make moral mistakes even when following cultural beliefs. What does Russ Shafer-Landau believe? Objective moral truths exist, but we should remain humble. Why should we be humble about morality? We could be mistaken even when we believe we are right. What is dogmatism? Being so certain of your beliefs that you refuse to consider being wrong. What is J. L. Mackie’s problem of evil? An all-powerful, wholly good God seems incompatible with the existence of evil. What are Mackie’s three claims? God is all-powerful; God is wholly good; evil exists. Why do Mackie’s claims conflict? A good God would want to remove evil, and an all-powerful God could remove it. What is William Paley’s argument? Complex things working together for a purpose suggest an intelligent designer. What example does Paley use? A watch whose parts work together to tell time. What does Paley’s watch suggest about nature? The complexity of nature suggests an intelligent designer. What is a premise? A statement supporting an argument’s conclusion. What is a conclusion? The claim an argument is trying to prove. What is a valid argument? If the premises were true, the conclusion would have to be true. What is a sound argument? A valid argument with all true premises. What is an invalid argument? The premises could be true while the conclusion is false. Can a valid argument have false premises? Yes. Validity depends on logical structure, not actual truth. Can an argument be valid but not sound? Yes, if at least one premise is false. What is the difference between valid and sound? Valid means the conclusion follows logically; sound means valid with true premises. What is modus ponens? If P then Q. P. Therefore Q. What is the stove example of modus ponens? If I touch the stove, I get burned. I touched it. Therefore I got burned. How do you remember modus ponens? Go forward: affirm the IF part to establish the THEN part. What is modus tollens? If P then Q. Not Q. Therefore not P. What is the stove example of modus tollens? If I touch the stove, I get burned. I did not get burned. Therefore I did not touch it. How do you remember modus tollens? Work backward: deny the THEN part, then deny the IF part. What is the difference between ponens and tollens? Ponens affirms P; tollens denies Q. Does modus tollens contain NOT? Yes, in its second premise and conclusion. What is affirming the consequent? The invalid argument: If P then Q. Q. Therefore P. What are Aristotle’s three kinds of friendship? Usefulness, pleasure, and virtue. What is friendship of usefulness? Friendship based on what people can do for each other. What is friendship of pleasure? Friendship based on enjoyment and having fun together. What is friendship of virtue? Good people wishing good for each other for the other’s sake. Which friendship does Aristotle consider best? Friendship of virtue. What does Aristotle say about living without friends? Nobody would choose to live without friends, even with other good things. What defines true friendship for Aristotle? Mutually wishing good for each other for the other’s sake. What does Wanderly argue about love? Real love involves needing the other person. What example is used for Wanderly? A six-year space trip showing how love involves missing and needing someone. What is the difference between real love and thin love? Real love involves deeply needing and missing the person. What does C. S. Lewis say about friendship? Friends stand side by side, sharing interests and experiences. How does Lewis contrast friendship and romantic love? Friends stand side by side; romantic lovers face each other. What is the monogamy debate? Whether romantic exclusivity is necessary for a meaningful relationship. What is Chalmers’ argument against monogamy? Having more friends does not make each friendship less special. What does Chalmers say about loving qualities? If love depends only on qualities, an identical person should be equally lovable. What happens if love is not based on qualities? It becomes difficult to explain why you love that particular person. What question does Chalmers raise about love? Do we love people for their qualities or for who they uniquely are? What does Socrates argue in the Apology? We should not assume death is bad because we do not know what it is like. What is false wisdom according to Socrates? Fearing death as if we know it is terrible when we actually do not. What are Socrates’ two possibilities for death? Dreamless sleep or the soul traveling to meet people from the past. Why could dreamless sleep be good? It could be peaceful and free from suffering. Why could the soul’s journey be good? We could meet and speak with people from the past. What does Socrates argue in the Phaedo? Death separates the soul from the body. How does Socrates describe death in the Phaedo? The soul leaving the body and becoming free from bodily distractions. What does philosophy is practice for dying mean? Philosophers practice separating thought from bodily desires to seek truth. How do the Apology and Phaedo differ? Apology emphasizes uncertainty; Phaedo emphasizes the soul leaving the body. What does Ecclesiastes say about death? Death comes to everyone regardless of wisdom or morality. Who faces the same fate in Ecclesiastes? Wise and foolish, good and bad, humans and animals. What does Ecclesiastes say about the dead? The dead know nothing and receive no more earthly rewards. How does Ecclesiastes contrast with Socrates? Socrates sees possible benefits in death; Ecclesiastes emphasizes its inevitability. What is the main lesson of Ecclesiastes about death? Everyone eventually faces the same fate.