The Emergence of Cities and States

Etymology and Definitions of Civilization

• Civis: This term refers to one who is an inhabitant of a city.

• Civitas: This term refers to the urban community in which one dwells.

• Civilization: The word "Civilization" is derived from the root "civis." In the field of anthropology, it is specifically defined as a type of society marked by the presence of cities, social classes, and the state.

Chronology and Locations of Early Civilizations

• The Transition: Neolithic villages evolved into the world's first cities approximately $4500$ to $6000 \text{ years ago}$.

• Key Regions and Timelines:

  • Mesopotamia (Iraq): Established as the world's first civilization.

  • Egypt and the Indus Valley: The Nile Valley in Egypt and the Indus Valley of India and Pakistan were the next regions to develop civilizations.

  • China: Chinese civilization emerged by approximately $5000 \text{ years ago}$.

  • The Americas: The first American Indian cities appeared in Peru approximately $4000 \text{ years ago}$ and in Mesoamerica approximately $2000 \text{ years ago}$. Currently, more than $8 \text{ billion plus}$ inhabitants live in urban environments worldwide.

Defining Features of Civilization

• Large Size and Large Population: Cities are distinct from merely being "overgrown towns."

  • Example: Catalhoyuk, Turkey: This was a $9500\text{-year-old}$ village with a population of more than $5000 \text{ people}$. Despite its size, it was NOT a city because there was no room for streets (people entered homes through roof holes), food was still collected from wild sources alongside livestock/crops, and there was no evidence of a central government or clear division of labor.

• Central Authority and Planning: Urban centers are characterized by organization planned by a central authority, technological intensification, and social stratification.

  • Example: Mohenjo-Daro (Indus Valley): Boasting a population of $20,000$, the city was built on an artificial mound to provide protection from flood waters. It featured streets laid out in grids and homes equipped with drainage systems.

• Incorporation of Spirituality and Social Beliefs: Civilizations often integrate their layout with cosmological or social beliefs.

  • Example: Teotihuacan, Mexico: Founded $2200 \text{ years ago}$, its layout was a translation of the solar calendar. It featured a massive north-south street connecting great pyramids and had the San Juan River running through it. It housed over $100,000 \text{ people}$ until the $7\text{th century}$.

• Social and Economic Diversity: Cities exhibit a wide range of social statuses and vocational specializations.

  • Evidence in Teotihuacan: Differences in status were visible in the varying sizes and types of homes. Occupations ranged from artisans and farmers to royalty, all coexisting within a single urban center.

Case Study: Tikal, Guatemala

• General Context: Tikal was one of the largest Mayan centers, settled approximately $3000 \text{ years ago}$. It spanned about $120 \text{ square km}$ and supported a population of $45,000 \text{ people}$.

• Archaeological Insights: Excavations of houses, mounds, and structures have provided a deep understanding of daily life.

  • Social Class: Differences in architecture, house construction techniques, artifacts, and burial patterns suggest clear social class distinctions.

  • Kinship: The distribution of houses reflected the existence of extended families and kin groups.

  • The Great Plaza: This was the center of Tikal, surrounded by forest land so thick it obscured even the tallest temples from view.

• Economic and Technological Evidence:

  • Imports: Raw materials and finished products such as granite, jade, slate, obsidian (volcanic glass), and marine materials were brought into Tikal.

  • Exports: Tikal exported goods like chert, textiles, feathers, salt, and cacao to other regions.

  • Specialized Labor: The city contained workshops for woodworking, pottery, stone carving, and obsidian work. Other specialists included masons, paper makers, scribes, dental workers, textile workers, and astronomers.

• Governance and Religion:

  • Hereditary Ruling Dynasty: This ruling body provided the power necessary to organize defense (ditches and embankments) and the construction/maintenance of the city.

  • Priests: Mayan priests provided wisdom and expert advice, particularly regarding the Mayan calendar, which determined the timing for planting and the arrival of rains.

  • Agricultural Management: Reservoirs and channels were maintained to supply water to necessary areas throughout the year.

  • Evidence of Warfare: Abandoned homes, the presence of defensive embankments/ditches, and malnourished skeletons provide evidence of conflict.

The Four Key Transitions from Neolithic Village to Urban Life

• 1. Agricultural Innovation:

  • The development of dikes, canals, and reservoirs for irrigation significantly increased crop yields.

  • This allowed for farming during the dry season.

  • The principle was: "MORE FOOD = MORE PEOPLE."

• 2. Diversification of Labor:

  • Unlike Neolithic families who all had to work on family farms, urban life allowed for specialized trades.

  • The Bronze Age: In Eurasia and Africa, this period was marked by the production of bronze tools and ornaments. It began approximately $5000 \text{ years ago}$ in China and Southwest Asia, and about $500 \text{ years earlier}$ in Southeast Asia. Metal tools eventually replaced stone ones, as stone was no match for metal.

  • American Indian Metal Use: In Central and South America, metals like gold, silver, and copper were used for ceremonies, ornaments, and tools. However, the Aztecs and Maya still relied heavily on stone for daily use, specifically obsidian for its edges that were sharper than most metals.

  • Commerce: The development of rowboats and sailboats reduced trade time compared to overland travel. Egyptian kings sent expeditions far and wide for food, spices, and metals.

• 3. Central Government:

  • The governing elite managed different interest groups (e.g., farmers vs. craftsmen) to ensure services were provided and rights weren't infringed upon.

  • Governments provided protection via forts and armies, issued taxes, and established legal systems.

  • Evidence of government is found in law codes, temple records, royal chronicles, and the construction of monuments/palaces designed to display power and wealth.

  • Ancient writing was used by authorities to disseminate information and to systematize/deploy memory for economic, religious, and political purposes.

• 4. Social Stratification:

  • Classes were divided based on vocation and birth.

  • Hierarchy: Rulers and government officials held the highest rank, followed by priests and religious servers. Specialists outranked farmers, while merchants could sometimes purchase their way into higher classes.

  • Grave Goods: Defined as items such as utensils, figurines, and personal possessions symbolically placed in the grave for the deceased person's use in the afterlife. The variety and quality of items within excavated graves varied by socio-economic class.

  • Biological Indicators: Skeletons of dominant groups typically show fewer signs of disease and malnutrition, indicating they lived longer and ate better than lower classes.

Theories on the Emergence of Civilization

• Ecological Approaches:

  • Hydraulic Theory: Explains the emergence of civilization as a result of constructing elaborate irrigation systems. Managing these systems required full-time managers, who eventually evolved into the first governing body and elite class.

  • Trade Theory: Suggests that in regions of ecological diversity, trade becomes necessary for scarce resources. Centralized governments are required to organize this trade and redistribute commodities.

  • Barrier Theory: Proposes that states develop when populations are surrounded by environmental barriers (mountains, deserts, seas). As resources become scarce, groups fight; the more powerful group eventually takes over, requiring a centralized government to organize for war and conquest.

• Critique of Ecological Models: These models do not fit all cultures. Some societies learn to coexist and share resources without conflict. Additionally, centralized governments do not always arise solely from large-scale irrigation, and different cultural beliefs may regulate interactions with the environment.

• Action Theory: The theory that self-serving actions by forceful leaders play a primary role in the emergence of civilization.

Problems Associated with Civilization

• Public Health: The accumulation of garbage and sewage in densely populated areas facilitates the spread of infectious diseases.

• Colonization: The introduction of diseases to populations with no previous immunity can decrease populations significantly or cause them to die out.

• Environmental Impact: Urbanization leads to the depletion of resources and the erosion of soil.