Causes, Key Events, and Figures of the War of 1812 (Part 1)

I. Background

A. Causes

1. Orders in Council:

   • The British proclaimed a blockade of France and most of Europe to prevent supplies from reaching Napoleon.

   • American ships attempting to trade were seized by the British Navy, threatening the US economy.

   • These orders were a series of decrees issued by the British government during the Napoleonic Wars, which restricted neutral countries' trade with France.

   • The British aimed to cripple the French economy, but the orders led to significant disruptions in American trade, causing economic hardship and resentment.

2. Impressment:

   • Definition: The British seized American sailors and forced them into the British Navy.

   • Background:

   • The British Navy was crucial for the island nation's defense, especially against Napoleon.

   • The British Navy had a manpower shortage with 800 warships at its peak. Sailors deserted due to brutal discipline, poor pay, and nasty food.

   • Deserters often joined the American Merchant Navy, where conditions were better.

   • British Justification:

   • The British claimed the right to seize deserters, including naturalized American citizens, arguing that once British, always British.

   • They sometimes seized natural-born American citizens due to similar accents and lack of identification.

   • Captains sometimes grabbed sailors near the American coast to quickly replace those lost to disease or battle.

   • Statistics (1805-1810):

   • 5,000 sailors were impressed off American ships.

   • 1,300 of those were natural-born American citizens.

   • Impressment fueled American anger and was seen as a violation of national sovereignty.

3. British & the Native Americans:

   • Americans suspected the British of instigating Native American conflicts and providing them with weapons to block American expansion.

   • Tecumseh:

   • A Shawnee chief who aimed to unite tribes against American expansion.

   • He formed an alliance of tribes to fight the Americans.

   • Battle of Tippecanoe (1811):

   • General William Henry Harrison attacked Tecumseh's headquarters at Tippecanoe.

   • Harrison defeated Tecumseh's alliance while Tecumseh was away.

   • After the battle, British-made muskets were found on the battlefield, leading many Americans to believe the British were aiding the Native Americans.

   • The British policy of supporting Native American resistance served as another point of contention between the US and Britain.

4. War Hawks:

   • Definition: Southern and Western congressmen who wanted war with Britain to conquer Canada.

   • Henry Clay:

   • A Kentucky congressman and leader of the War Hawks.

   • A key figure in American history who ran for president three times and lost.

   • The War Hawks believed that war with Britain was necessary to defend American honor, end British interference with American trade and expansion, and potentially annex Canada.

   B. Drift to War:

5. President Madison initially tried to avoid war and resolve issues diplomatically.

6. On 06/01/1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war due to British actions against American ships and sailors.

7. On 06/16/1812, the British repealed the Orders in Council (lifted the blockade).

8. Two days later, Congress declared war, officially starting the War of 1812.

9. The declaration of war happened because news of the British concession had not yet reached America due to slow communications. The vote in the Senate was very close, and the declaration likely would not have passed if the news had arrived in time.

10. The slow communication networks of the time played a crucial role in the declaration of war, highlighting the challenges of governing in the early 19th century.

II. First Year of War: 1812

A. Canadian Follies:

• The US planned a three-pronged invasion of Canada from Detroit, Niagara Falls, and the Hudson River Valley.

• The invasions failed due to American mistakes and the refusal of militias to invade Canada.

• The failure of the American invasions exposed the inexperience and disorganization of the American military at the beginning of the war.

  B. “Old Ironsides”:

• The USS Constitution, a well-built American warship, engaged and defeated the British warship HMS Guerriere.

• The Constitution earned the nickname "Old Ironsides" because British cannonballs seemed to bounce off its strong white oak hull.

• The victory boosted American morale.

• The USS Constitution remains an active duty American warship and floating museum in Boston. The ship fought in 33 engagements and won all of them.

• Cannon were called 24 pounders because the cannonball that would be put in would weigh 24 pounds, and the ship could double shot.

• The success of the USS Constitution in naval battles provided a much-needed boost to American morale during the early stages of the war.

  C. The Presidential Election:

• James Madison was reelected, as has happened with every American president running for reelection during wartime.

• Madison's reelection indicated continued support for the war effort, despite early setbacks and growing opposition from some quarters.

III. Second Year of War: 1813

A. Oliver Hazard Perry:

• An American naval officer tasked with building a navy on Lake Erie to destroy the British navy.

• Perry's victory at the Battle of Lake Erie was a turning point in the war, giving the US control of the lake and enabling the recapture of Detroit.

  B. William Henry Harrison:

• Recaptured Detroit.

• Advanced into Canada and defeated the British at the Battle of the Thames (October 1813), where Tecumseh was killed.

• Harrison's victory at the Battle of the Thames resulted in the death of Tecumseh, effectively ending the Native American alliance in the Northwest Territory.

IV. Third Year of War: 1814

A. Canada, Again:

• The US and Canada border saw many battles,

• Continued American efforts to invade Canada met with limited success, as the British and Canadian forces effectively defended their territory.

  B. Andrew Jackson & Horseshoe Bend:

• General Andrew Jackson defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (March 1814).

• This victory opened up the Mississippi Territory for American settlement and enhanced Jackson's reputation as a military leader.

  C. The Invasion of the Chesapeake Bay

• Bladensburg & Washington:

  • British forces invaded the Chesapeake Bay and marched on Washington, D.C.

  • The British defeated American forces at the Battle of Bladensburg (August 1814) and proceeded to burn the White House, the Capitol, and other public buildings.

  • The burning of Washington was a low point for American morale during the war and a symbolic blow to the American government.

• Ft. McHenry & Francis Scott Key:

  • The British attacked Fort McHenry in Baltimore (September 1814), but the American defenders held firm.

  • Francis Scott Key, an American lawyer, witnessed the bombardment and was inspired to write a poem that later became the lyrics to the Star-Spangled Banner.

  • The successful defense of Fort McHenry and the creation of the Star-Spangled Banner became symbols of American resilience and patriotism.

  D. The Hartford Convention:

• A series of meetings of New England Federalists who opposed the war.

• The Federalists discussed possible secession from the Union and proposed constitutional amendments to protect New England's interests.

• The Hartford Convention further weakened the Federalist Party and contributed to its decline after the war.

  E. The Battle of New Orleans:

• General Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a British force at the Battle of New Orleans (January 1815).

• The battle occurred after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed, but news of the treaty had not yet reached America.

• The victory at New Orleans boosted American morale and solidified Jackson's status as a national hero.

  F. Treaty of Ghent:

• Signed on December 24, 1814, ending the War of 1812.

• The treaty restored pre-war boundaries between the US and Britain and addressed some of the issues that had led to the conflict.

• However, the treaty did not address impressment or neutral shipping rights, which remained unresolved issues.

V. Impact of the War of 1812

A. “The Second War of American Independence”:

• The War of 1812 is often called the "Second War of American Independence" because it confirmed American independence and demonstrated the nation's ability to defend itself against a major world power.

• The war also fostered a sense of national unity and identity among Americans.

  B. War Heroes:

• The War of 1812 produced several war heroes, including Andrew Jackson, William Henry Harrison, and Oliver Hazard Perry.

• These heroes went on to play prominent roles in American politics and society in the years following the war.

  C. Economic Impact:

• The war stimulated American manufacturing and reduced dependence on British goods.

• The postwar period saw a surge in American nationalism and economic growth.

  D. Final Tangle with the Barbary Pirates:

• The US used its strengthened navy to deal with the Barbary Pirates, effectively ending their attacks on American shipping.

• This action further solidified American prestige and demonstrated the nation's growing power on the world stage.

  E. Federalists Discredited:

• The Federalist Party was discredited by its opposition to the war and its perceived disloyalty during the Hartford Convention.

• The decline of the Federalist Party marked the end of the first American party system and ushered in the Era of Good Feelings.