AP PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOUR

Your mind is what your main does according to psychologists.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGISTS→they explor the relationship between brain and nervous systems and behaviours. Conciousness is your awareness of the outside world and yourself. Consciousness is your awareness of th outside world and yourslef, Conciousness properties is that is selective, subjective, and uique to you. Always chaging and central to your sese of self.

PAU BROCA DISCOVERED JAT THE LEFT FRONTAL LBIE JNOW AS bROCAS AREA WHEN DESTRUCTD IS CAUSES THE LOSS OF THE ABILITY TO SPWAK (Expressive apahasia)

WENIJCKES AREA results in loss of the ability to comprehend wrtten and spoken language, receptive aphasia

LESIONS→are precies destruciton of brain tissues

CARPUS CALLOSUM→ a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating interhemispheric communication.

BRAIN LATERALIZATION → the functional specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres, where the left hemisphere is typically associated with language and analytical tasks, while the right hemisphere is linked to spatial and creative functions.

The left cerebral hemispheres pspecialises in verbal, mathematical, and analytical functions, Whiele the right is specialised for spataial, musical, and holistic gunctions.

COMPUTERIZED AXIAL TOMOGRAPHY(CAR OR CT) creates a coputerized image usong xrays passed thorugh various angles of the brian

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING signals that depend upon the density of the tissue.

MEASURING BRAIN FUCNTION

EEG amplified tracoing of the brain acivity produced when electrodes positioned over the scalp transmit singals about the brains electrical activity

EVOKED POTENTIALS when the recorded change in voltage result form a response to a specific stimulus.

POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY →produces color cimputer graphics that depend o the amount of metabolic activity in the igaed brain region.

FUNCTIONAL MRI showa rhw beiN r qoek R HIGHR RESOLUTION THAN THE pet SACNNER.

MAGNETIC SOURCE IMAGE is produce by MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY MEG scan THEY ARE ABLE TO DETECT THE SLIGHT MAGNETIC FIELD CAUSED BY THE ELECTRIC POTENTIALS IN THE brain.

ORGANIZATION OF YOUR NERVOUS SYSTEM→

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM → consists of brain an spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM includes the somativc nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM0> HAS MOTOR neurons that stimulate voluntary movement.

AUTONOMIC NERBOUS SYSTEM0> smooth involuntary and heart msucel

the autonomic is subdivided again into sympathetic and parasympathetic nerrvouss ystems.

SYPATHETIC → deals with stressfull events flight or fight

PARASYMPATHETIC→is the relaxed state of your body

SPINAL CORD is protected by membranes called meninges it is composed of interneurons and glial cellss all bathed in cerebrospinal fluod

THE BRAIN

its like soft serve yogurst and is housed in the skull.

TRIUNE BRAIN→ a model that explains the brain's structure and functions in three distinct parts: the reptilian complex, responsible for basic survival functions; the limbic system, which governs emotions and social behaviors; and the neocortex, essential for higher cognitive processes such as reasoning and decision making.

THE REPTILIAN BRAIN→ this is the oldest part of the brain, controlling instinctual behaviors such as aggression, dominance, territoriality, and basic survival instincts, including feeding and mating.

OLD MAMALLIAN BRAIN→ this part of the brain is primarily responsible for emotions, memory, and social behaviors and is a significant component of the limbic system, which enhances our ability to bond and create social connections.

NEW MAMALLIAN BRAIN OR NEOCORTEX→ this part of the brain is associated with higher-order functions such as abstract thought, language, and planning, allowing humans to engage in complex social interactions and problem-solving activities.

the surface f the cortex has peaks called gyris and valleys called sulci. which from convolutions that increas the surface area of your cortex. THE deeper valleys present are called fisures.

LOCALIZATION AND LATERALIZATION OF THE BRAINS FUNCTION.

ASSOCIATION AREAS→ regions of the cortsx that do not have specific sensory or motor functions but are involved in higher mental functions

CONTRALATERALITY→ the concept that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body, highlighting the importance of both hemispheres in processing sensory and motor functions.

MEDULLA OBLONGATA→ this is where most fibers cross contralateral control, it regulates heart rythim, blood flow, breathing rate , digestion and vomiting.

PONS→ critical for arousal, brige between cerebral hemisphers and both medulla and cerebellum

CEREBELLUM→Coordinates otor funciton, integrating motion and positional information from the inner ear and muscles helps maintain balance.

BASIL GANGLIA→ linkes the thalamus with the motor cortex and motor areas

REgulates initiaiton of movements, balance, eye movements, and posture.

Involed in re2ward punishment learing, foucs, and fucntions in processing if implicit memory.

Some nuclei involved in emotion.

THALAMUS→ relay station for sensory pathways carrying visual auditory taste, asomatosensory informaiton fromt he cerebral cortex. Some nuclei involved in emotion

HYPOTALAMUS→controls autonomic functions sucha s temperaturem heart rate, sets appetitive drives and behaviours Sets emotinal states ush as rage, with the limbic system SECRETES HORMONES FROM PITUITARY HELPS DETERMINE BIOLOGICAL RYTHIMS.

AMYGDALA→ influences aggression and fear, Coordinates fight or flight responses.

HIPPOCAMPUS→ enables formation of new ong term memries

CEREBRAL CORTEX0→receives and processes sensory infomration and directs movement. Center for highe order processes SUCH as thinking, planning, judgement.

THE brain can be divided into eight lobes four in the left cerebral hemisphere 4 in the right cerebral hemisphere

OCCIPITAL LOBES→ information from left half of visual field of both eyers is processed in the right occipital libes

PARIETAL LOBES→ somatosensory cortex contralateral representation of all body parts

FRONTAL LOBES→ Motor corte strip inegrates activities of skeletal muscles contralateral. BROCAS AREA in left frontal lobe controls production of speech IT interprets and cotnrol emotional behavoorus, make decisions, and acarry out plans.

TEMPORA LOBES → center of heraing, WENICKES AREA→ nderstanding language and making meaningfull sentences right temprol lobe important for understanding music and otnality soud fromb oth ears processes mostly contralaterlaly.

if one region is damaged the brain an rorganise to take over its function this is calle dPLASTICITY

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE NEURON

GLIAL CELLS→ guide the groth and developing neruons helps providing nutrition for and get rid of wastes of neurons.

The neuron is the basi unit of structure and function of your nervous system.

THE CELL BODY→ contians citoplasm and the nucleus

DENDRITES→ are branching tubular processes capable of receiving information

THE AXON0> emerges from the cyton as a single conducting giber, that brancehs and ends in tips called terminal buttons it is coveres i myelin sheat

NEUROGENESIS→ the groth of new neurons, takes palce throughout life.

neurotransmitters→chemicals stored ins tructures of the terminal buttons called synaptic vesicles

ACETYLCHOLINE→ that causes contration of skeletal muscles, it helps regulate heart muscles, is involdved in memory, and transmits messages between the brain and spinal cord.

Lack of ACh is associated with Alzheimers disease.

DOPAMINE→stimulates the hypothalamus to synthet=size hormones and affects allertness and movement,

Lack of dopamine is associated iwth PARKINSONS DISEASE, which leads to tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with movement.

Too much dopamine cases schizophrenia.

GLUTAMATE→ a maojor excitatory transmitter involved in infoormation processing thoughout the cortex and escpecially memory formaton in the hippocampis

SERETONIN→ associated with sexual activity concentraiton and attetion moods and emotions. A lack of serotonin is assoicated iwth depression.

Opioid pptides such as endorphins are often considered the brains own painkillers

GAMMA AMINOBUTYRI ACID→ inhibits firing of neurons.

Seizures are associated ith malfunctioning GABA system

NOREPINEPHRINE→ is assoiciated with attentivenees, sleeping dreaming, and leraning.

AGONISTS may mimic a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor site, inhibiting the effect of the neurotrsnsmitter.s

NEURON FUNCTIONS

neuron receives incoming information from its receptors spread around its dendrites.

tHE NERUON WHEN AT REST is mnegative inside the cell membrane

The neurons resting potetntial results from the selective permeability of its membran and the presesnce of electrically charged particles calle dions

ACTION POTENTIAL if stimulatio is not strong enough your neuron doesnt fire, The strength of the action potential is constant whenever it ocurrs

ALL OR NON PRINCIPLE → the neuron either fires at full strength or not at all, meaning there is no partial firing. This principle ensures that the action potential remains consistent in amplitude regardless of the intensity of the stimulus.

DEPOLARIZAITON AND REPOLARIZZATION sis passed aling the axon to the terminal buttons.

SALTATORY CONDUCTION→ the electric current jumps from node to node and speed up to to muelin

Some of your sypnases are excitatory which means they increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential, often by depolarizing the membrane, while others are inhibitory, which reduce the chances of firing by hyperpolarizing the membrane.

Some of your sypnases are inhibitory which means they decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential, typically by making the inside of the neuron more negative.     

IT REGULATES YOUR Metablisim temperature and respiration IT ALSO ENABLES YOU TO LEARN REMEMBER AND DECIDE.

REFLEX ACTION

Reflex ivolves impulse conduction over a few neurons. the path is called reflex path

AFFERENT NEURONS tranmit impulses from your sensoyy receptors to the spinal or brain. Interneurons intervene inbetween and

EFERRENT NEURONS tranmit impulses from your sensory or interneurons to muscle cells that contract or gland cells that secrete. Muslce and gland cells are called effectors.

THE ENDONCRIE SYSTEM

consiste of gland that secete chemical messengers called hormones into your blood

Endocrine glands include the pineal gland, hypothalaus, and pituitary gland in your brian. The thyroid and parathyroids iny our neck the adrenal gands atop your kidneys,

PINEAL GLAND→ prduces melatonin regulates circadian ryths and is associated with seasonal affective disorder

HYPOTHALAMUS→ produces hormones that stimulate or inhibit secretion of hormones by the pituitary

PITUITARY GLAND0→mastergland=mastermind BECAUSE IT PRODUCES STIMULATING HORMONES THAT PROMOTE SEREAITN BY OTHER GLANDS INCLUDING

TSH0THYROID stimulating hormone

ACTH→adrenocorticotropi chormone stimultes adrenal cortex

FSH→ follicle stimulating hormone stimulates egg or sperm pridcution ADH to help restrain water, and HGH human groth hormone

THYROID GLAND→ produces thyroxine, stimulates and maintain metabolic acitivies LACK of it produces mental retardation

PARATHYROIDS→ maintains the calcium ion level in lbood that is necessary for normal functioning of neurons.

ADRENAL GLANDS→ produce hormones like adrenaline and norepinephrine, which are crucial in the body's response to stress, effectively regulating metabolism and immune response.

PANCREAS→ insulin and glucagonreguolate blood sugar that fuels all behavioral processes imbalances result in diabetes and hypoglycemia respectively

OVARIES AND TESTES→necessary for reproduction and development of secondary sex characteristics

GENETICS AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGISTS study how natural selection favored behaviours that contributed to survival and the spread of our ancestors.

GENETICS AND BEHAVIORU

BEHAVIORAL GENETICISTS study the role played y our genes and our environment in mental ability, emotional stability, temperament, ersonality, interestsm and so forth.

IDENTICAL TWINS→ are two individuals that share lal of the same genes becase they develop from the same fetilised egg or ygote

MONOZYGOTIC TWINS are often used in research to separate the effects of genetics and environment on behavior, as their genetic make-up is identical while their experiences may differ.

FRATERNNAL TWINS only share about half of the same genes

DIZYGOTIC TWINS

HERITABILITY

TRANSMISSION OF HEREDITARY CHARACTERISTICS→

TURNER SUNDROME→ a genetic disorder that affects females, resulting from a missing or incomplete X chromosome, which can lead to various physical and developmental challenges.

KLINEFELTERS SYNDROME→ a genetic condition in males characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome, which may result in reduced testosterone levels, infertility, and physical development differences.

DOWN SYNDROME→ a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21, leading to a range of developmental and physical challenges, including intellectual disability and distinct facial features.

TAY-SACHS SYNDROME→ a rare genetic disorder caused by the absence of an enzyme called hexosaminidase A, leading to the accumulation of harmful substances in the nerve cells of the brain, resulting in progressive neurological degeneration and, ultimately, premature death.

ALBINISM→ a genetic condition characterized by a lack of melanin production in the body, leading to white or light-colored skin, hair, and eyes, and increased sensitivity to sunlight as well as a higher risk for skin cancers.

PHENYLKETONURIA→ a genetic disorder resulting from a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, preventing the metabolism of phenylalanine, which can lead to intellectual disability and other serious health issues if not managed through a strict diet.

HUNTINGTONS DISEASE→ a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder caused by an abnormal repetition of the CAG nucleotide sequence in the HTT gene, leading to progressive motor dysfunction, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms, typically manifesting in mid-adulthood.

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS→

PRECONSICOUS→ is the level of conciousness that is outside of awareness bu cotains feeing and memories that you can easely bring into concsious

NONCONCOOUS→ devoted to processes compltetelt inaccessible to conscious awarenes sucha s blood flow,.

PSYCHODYAMIC PSUCHOLOGISTS→ unconscious sometimes claled the subconscoious often unaccptable feelings, wishe,s and thought not direclt avaialable to conscious awaeness.

DUAL PROCESSING→ refers to processing information on concious an unconscious levels at the same time

UNCONCIOUSNESS is characterized by loss of responsivenees to the environment resulting form disease , trauma or anesthesia

Consciousness can be altered by sleep hypnosis, meditation and drugs

SLEEP AND DREAMS-

the biological clock is controlled by the hypothalamus which regulates changes in bidy temperature , blood pressure, blood sugar levels, hormonal lvevl, and activity levels over the course of about a day.

free running is 25 hours but wiht light and allat is every 24h hours

CIRCADIAN RYTHMS→ these rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a daily cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness in the environment.

Reticular formaton → a network of neurons in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in regulating wakefulness, sleep, and attention, essentially filtering incoming stimuli and determining which information reaches the conscious mind.

WHY DO YOU SLEEP? result of natural selectio masimised our chances of survival. It does protein syntheiss throughout the body, and mainatins plasticity of neural connections essential forstoring and retrieveing memories

sleep time decreases as you grow older

ECELTROENCEPHALOGRAM→can be recoreded with electrodes on the surface of the skill revel the change si n waves when we sleep.

When rou are awake→ beta waves when you alert, and alpha waves when you are relaxed

HYPNAGOGIC STATE→ semiawakeful state m you fail to respond to outside sitimuli First stage, NON-REM1 it shows theta waves then NREM 2 it contain high frequency of brusts of brai activity. NREM 3 and 4 the n you go again to 1 and then you go into REM SLEEP OR RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP about 90 min after falling asleep. Your heart increases, ad your blood pressure, and rapid eye movement. and its called paradoxical sleep because it has beta waves tyical of being awake but youa re tryly asleep.

50 percent of sleep is NREM2

NIGHTMARES→ are frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep. MOST OF THE DREAMING TAKES PLACE DURING REM.

lucid dreaming is the ability to be aware of and direct ones dreams.

INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS

they are the road to the unconscoiousl

ACTIVATION SYNSTHEIS STHEORY→ the theory that dreams are the result of the brain's attempts to make sense of random neural activity that occurs during sleep.

SLEEP DISORDERS

INSOMNIA→ the inability to fall asleep and or stay asleep

NARCOLEPSY→ condition in which you are awake and suddenly tou fall assleep

SLEEP APNEA→ temporary cessariotns of breathing that awaken the sufferer repeatedly more obese people have it.

NIGHT TERRORS→ MOST FRQUENTLY CHILDHOOD SLEEP DISRUPTIONS FORM THE DEEPST PART OF NRWM 3

SLEEPWALKING or Somnambulism, DURING SLEEP nrem3

HYPNOSIS→ altered state of consciousness characterisedb by deep relaxatinn and heightene suggestibiltiy.

MEDITATION→ is a set of technique sused tofocus and concentrate in order ot create inner peace/

DRUGS

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS→ are chemicals that can pass thourgh the blood brain barrier into the brain to alter perception, thinkingl, vehaviour, and mood.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE→ develops when a person has intense desire to achieve the drugged state in spite of adverse effects.

Decreasing responsibvity to a drug is called tolerance

PHYSIOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE OR ADDICTION ocurrs hne changes in brin chemistry make you have or experience withdrawal symptoms

DEPRESSAMTS→ are psychoactie drugs that reduce activity of the central nervous system and induce relXATION

tOHYPNOL IS THE DUBBES DATE AAND RAPE DRUG

alcohol increases transmission of the neuroinhibitor GABA

Withdeawal symptoms include shaing

NARCOTICS→ are analgesics they depresse the central nervous system

they induce a felling of euphoria

STIMULANTS→ acitivate motivatinal centers and reduce activity ininhibitory centers of the central nervous system

HALLUCINOGENS→ also called psychedelics it distorts perceptions, eboke sensory imges, they fell dreamlike feelings.