11-13

7UNIT 11 

🦠 Impact of the Plague

• What: The Black Death (bubonic plague)
  
  

• Who: Affected all classes, killing up to 50% of Europe's population
  
  

• When: Peaked in 1347–1351
  
  

• Where: Spread throughout Europe via trade routes
  
  

• Significance: Caused social, economic, and religious upheaval; labor shortages empowered peasants; challenged Church authority
  
  

🔥 The Jacquerie (1358)

• What: Violent peasant revolt in France
  
  

• Who: French peasants vs. nobility
  
  

• When: 1358
  
  

• Where: Northern France
  
  

• Significance: Response to taxation and feudal abuses after the Black Death and Hundred Years' War defeats; brutally suppressed
  
  

⚔ English Peasants’ Revolt (1381)

• What: Major uprising against poll taxes and feudal oppression
  
  

• Who: Led by Wat Tyler and John Ball
  
  

• When: 1381
  
  

• Where: England, especially London
  
  

• Significance: First large-scale working-class revolt in English history; scared elites but didn’t end serfdom immediately
  
  

💀 Dance of Death

• What: Artistic and literary motif showing Death summoning people from all walks of life
  
  

• Who: Featured anonymous figures from all classes
  
  

• When: Popular after the Black Death (late 14th century onward)
  
  

• Where: Across Europe
  
  

• Significance: Reflected fatalism and equality in death; cultural response to mass mortality
  
  

📚 Dante Alighieri (d. 1321)

• What: Author of The Divine Comedy
  
  

• Who: Italian poet and political thinker
  
  

• When: Died in 1321
  
  

• Where: Florence, Italy
  
  

• Significance: Wrote in vernacular Italian; bridged medieval and Renaissance worldviews; shaped European literature
  
  

📖 Geoffrey Chaucer

• What: Author of The Canterbury Tales
  
  

• Who: English writer and civil servant
  
  

• When: ca. 1343–1400
  
  

• Where: England
  
  

• Significance: Father of English literature; used vernacular; captured medieval life with irony and realism
  
  

🌱 The Renaissance: Overview

• What: Cultural revival of classical art, literature, philosophy, and learning
  
  

• Who: Led by artists, thinkers, and patrons
  
  

• When: 14th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Began in Italy, spread across Europe
  
  

• Significance: Marked a shift from medieval to modern values; emphasized human potential and secular achievements
  
  

🧠 Petrarch

• What: Father of Humanism
  
  

• Who: Italian poet and scholar
  
  

• When: 1304–1374
  
  

• Where: Italy
  
  

• Significance: Revived classical Latin texts; believed in moral philosophy rooted in ancient Rome
  
  

🏛 Renaissance Humanism

• What: Intellectual movement focused on human potential and classical learning
  
  

• Who: Scholars like Petrarch, Erasmus, and More
  
  

• When: 14th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Originated in Italy, spread to Northern Europe
  
  

• Significance: Influenced education, politics, art, and religion with a focus on secular subjects and civic virtue
  
  

🎨 The Italian Renaissance

• What: Artistic and cultural golden age
  
  

• Who: Artists like Michelangelo, da Vinci, thinkers like Machiavelli
  
  

• When: 1300s–1500s
  
  

• Where: Italian city-states (Florence, Rome, Venice)
  
  

• Significance: Rebirth of classical ideals, scientific curiosity, and realistic art; transformed European culture
  
  

🧠 Writers and Thinkers

• What: Renaissance intellectuals
  
  

• Who: Petrarch, Alberti, Machiavelli, Castiglione
  
  

• When: 14th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Primarily Italy
  
  

• Significance: Shaped modern political theory, secular ethics, and personal conduct ideals
  
  

🏗 Leon Battista Alberti (d. 1472)

• What: Architect, artist, and writer
  
  

• Who: Renaissance “universal man”
  
  

• When: 1404–1472
  
  

• Where: Italy
  
  

• Significance: Promoted proportion and harmony in architecture; stressed individual accomplishment
  
  

🧠 Niccolò Machiavelli (d. 1527)

• What: Author of The Prince
  
  

• Who: Florentine political theorist
  
  

• When: 1469–1527
  
  

• Where: Florence, Italy
  
  

• Significance: Advised rulers to be pragmatic and sometimes ruthless; inspired the term "Machiavellian"
  
  

🎓 Baldassare Castiglione

• What: Author of The Book of the Courtier
  
  

• Who: Italian diplomat and writer
  
  

• When: 1478–1529
  
  

• Where: Italy
  
  

• Significance: Defined the ideal Renaissance gentleman; emphasized grace, knowledge, and courtly behavior
  
  

🎨 Chiaroscuro

• What: Artistic technique using light and shadow for depth
  
  

• Who: Used by da Vinci, Caravaggio, and others
  
  

• When: 15th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Italy
  
  

• Significance: Advanced realism and drama in painting
  
  

🧠 Leonardo da Vinci (d. 1519)

• What: Polymath, painter of The Last Supper, Mona Lisa
  
  

• Who: Italian artist, engineer, scientist
  
  

• When: 1452–1519
  
  

• Where: Italy
  
  

• Significance: Embodied the Renaissance ideal; innovated in anatomy, art, and design
  
  

🎨 Raphael (d. 1520)

• What: Painter of The School of Athens
  
  

• Who: High Renaissance artist
  
  

• When: 1483–1520
  
  

• Where: Rome, Italy
  
  

• Significance: Balanced beauty and realism; celebrated classical philosophy and art
  
  

🗿 Michelangelo (d. 1564)

• What: Sculptor of David, painter of Sistine Chapel ceiling
  
  

• Who: Florentine artist
  
  

• When: 1475–1564
  
  

• Where: Italy
  
  

• Significance: Mastered both sculpture and painting; fused anatomy and spirituality in art
  
  

⛪ Il Duomo (Santa Maria del Fiore)

• What: Cathedral with innovative dome
  
  

• Who: Engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi
  
  

• When: Dome completed in 1436
  
  

• Where: Florence, Italy
  
  

• Significance: Engineering marvel and symbol of Florentine pride and Renaissance ingenuity
  
  

🏛 Andrea Palladio

• What: Architect of villas and classical-style buildings
  
  

• Who: Italian designer
  
  

• When: 1508–1580
  
  

• Where: Northern Italy (Veneto region)
  
  

• Significance: Influenced Western architecture; wrote The Four Books of Architecture
  
  

🌍 The Northern European Renaissance

• What: Spread of Renaissance ideas northward
  
  

• Who: Thinkers like Erasmus and More
  
  

• When: 15th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: France, Germany, England, Low Countries
  
  

• Significance: Blended classical learning with Christian reform; emphasized moral renewal
  
  

✝ Christian Humanism

• What: Humanism merged with Christian ethics
  
  

• Who: Erasmus, Thomas More
  
  

• When: 15th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Northern Europe
  
  

• Significance: Advocated moral reform, education, and inner piety within the Church
  
  

📜 Erasmus (d. 1536)

• What: Scholar and reformer; wrote In Praise of Folly
  
  

• Who: Dutch humanist
  
  

• When: 1466–1536
  
  

• Where: Netherlands
  
  

• Significance: Criticized Church abuses with wit; laid groundwork for reform without breaking from Rome
  
  

🧒 De pueris instituendis

• What: Erasmus’s work on education
  
  

• Who: Written by Erasmus
  
  

• When: Published early 16th century
  
  

• Where: Northern Europe
  
  

• Significance: Argued for gentle, morally grounded childhood education; part of Christian humanist thought
  
  

🖨 Printing Revolution

• What: Spread of movable-type printing
  
  

• Who: Invented by Johannes Gutenberg
  
  

• When: Mid-15th century (c. 1440s)
  
  

• Where: Mainz, Germany
  
  

• Significance: Spread knowledge rapidly, enabled Reformation, democratized learning
  
  

🏛 Thomas More

• What: Author of Utopia
  
  

• Who: English lawyer, statesman, humanist
  
  

• When: 1478–1535
  
  

• Where: England
  
  

• Significance: Advocated for social justice and ideal governance; executed for opposing Henry VIII’s break with Rome
  
  

HIS 101, Unit 12 Terms:

🌍 Reorientation of Western Powers

• What: Shift in European focus from Mediterranean to Atlantic and overseas exploration
  
  

• Who: Western European states like Spain and Portugal
  
  

• When: 15th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Western Europe, Atlantic world
  
  

• Significance: Led to the Age of Exploration, overseas empires, and global trade networks
  
  

🏛 End of the Byzantines

• What: Fall of the Byzantine Empire
  
  

• Who: Conquered by Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II
  
  

• When: 1453
  
  

• Where: Constantinople (modern Istanbul)
  
  

• Significance: Marked end of the medieval Christian Eastern Roman Empire; rise of the Ottomans
  
  

⚔ Ottoman Turks

• What: Muslim empire that conquered Byzantine lands
  
  

• Who: Led by sultans like Mehmed II
  
  

• When: 14th–20th centuries (rise in 1300s, peak in 1500s)
  
  

• Where: Anatolia, Balkans, Middle East
  
  

• Significance: Powerful Islamic empire; controlled trade routes and influenced European expansion
  
  

🏹 Mehmed II

• What: Ottoman sultan who captured Constantinople
  
  

• Who: Also known as Mehmed the Conqueror
  
  

• When: Reigned 1444–1446 and 1451–1481
  
  

• Where: Ottoman Empire
  
  

• Significance: Ended Byzantine Empire in 1453; made Constantinople a thriving Islamic capital
  
  

🛡 Janissary

• What: Elite Ottoman military corps
  
  

• Who: Christian boys taken through the devshirme system and trained
  
  

• When: 14th–19th centuries
  
  

• Where: Ottoman Empire
  
  

• Significance: Loyal, disciplined soldiers; symbol of Ottoman military strength
  
  

🏰 Reconquista

• What: Christian reconquest of Spain from Muslim rule
  
  

• Who: Spanish Christian kingdoms, especially Castile and Aragon
  
  

• When: 711–1492 (ended with fall of Granada)
  
  

• Where: Iberian Peninsula
  
  

• Significance: United Spain under Christianity; paved way for overseas expansion
  
  

👑 Ferdinand and Isabella

• What: Catholic monarchs who united Spain
  
  

• Who: King of Aragon and Queen of Castile
  
  

• When: Married in 1469; ruled jointly into early 1500s
  
  

• Where: Spain
  
  

• Significance: Completed Reconquista, expelled Jews, funded Columbus’s voyages
  
  

✡ Sephardic Jews (1492)

• What: Jews expelled from Spain
  
  

• Who: Victims of the Alhambra Decree by Ferdinand and Isabella
  
  

• When: 1492
  
  

• Where: Iberian Peninsula
  
  

• Significance: Massive displacement; spread Sephardic culture across Mediterranean and beyond
  
  

💥 Destroyed Italy —-- LEFT OFF HERE CLASS may 20

• What: Series of invasions and internal wars
  
  

• Who: French, Spanish, German forces vs. Italian city-states
  
  

• When: Late 15th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Italian Peninsula
  
  

• Significance: Ended Italian Renaissance dominance; led to foreign occupation
  
  

⚔ Condottiere

• What: Mercenary military leaders in Italy
  
  

• Who: Hired by city-states like Milan and Florence
  
  

• When: 14th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Italy
  
  

• Significance: Helped shape Renaissance warfare; unstable political power
  
  

🛡 Francesco Sforza

• What: Condottiere who became Duke of Milan
  
  

• Who: Founder of the Sforza dynasty
  
  

• When: Ruled 1450–1466
  
  

• Where: Milan, Italy
  
  

• Significance: Example of rise of power through military force; key Renaissance patron
  
  

✍ Peace of Lodi (1454)

• What: Treaty ending war between Milan and Venice
  
  

• Who: Italian city-states
  
  

• When: 1454
  
  

• Where: Northern Italy
  
  

• Significance: Stabilized Italy temporarily; led to balance-of-power politics
  
  

🔥 Sack of Rome (1527)

• What: Destruction of Rome by Charles V’s troops
  
  

• Who: Holy Roman Empire forces (many unpaid mercenaries)
  
  

• When: 1527
  
  

• Where: Rome, Italy
  
  

• Significance: Marked end of Italian High Renaissance; symbol of chaos in Italy
  
  

🌍 Expansion Abroad

• What: European exploration and colonization
  
  

• Who: Led by Spain and Portugal
  
  

• When: 15th–17th centuries
  
  

• Where: Africa, Asia, the Americas
  
  

• Significance: Established global empires, transformed trade and culture
  
  

🌍 Africa and Asia

• What: Early regions of European maritime exploration
  
  

• Who: Portuguese explorers, merchants
  
  

• When: 15th century onward
  
  

• Where: West Africa, Indian Ocean coasts
  
  

• Significance: Began global trade routes and imperialism
  
  

🧭 Prince Henry the Navigator (d. 1460)

• What: Portuguese prince who promoted exploration
  
  

• Who: Royal sponsor of navigational advances
  
  

• When: Died 1460
  
  

• Where: Portugal
  
  

• Significance: Founded school of navigation; started Age of Discovery
  
  

⛵ Vasco da Gama

• What: First European to reach India by sea
  
  

• Who: Portuguese explorer
  
  

• When: 1498
  
  

• Where: From Portugal to Calicut, India
  
  

• Significance: Opened sea route to Asia; transformed global trade
  
  

🚢 Caravel

• What: Fast, maneuverable ship for exploration
  
  

• Who: Used by Portuguese and Spanish
  
  

• When: 15th–17th centuries
  
  

• Where: Atlantic and beyond
  
  

• Significance: Allowed long-distance voyages; revolutionized navigation
  
  

🗺 Portolan Charts and Rutters

• What: Navigational maps and manuals
  
  

• Who: Used by sailors and captains
  
  

• When: 13th–16th centuries
  
  

• Where: Europe and Mediterranean world
  
  

• Significance: Improved maritime travel accuracy
  
  

🇮🇳 Goa (India)

• What: Portuguese colony in India
  
  

• Who: Captured by Afonso de Albuquerque
  
  

• When: 1510
  
  

• Where: West coast of India
  
  

• Significance: Base for Portuguese trade and Christian missions in Asia
  
  

🌎 New World

• What: Term for the Americas after European contact
  
  

• Who: Introduced by explorers like Columbus
  
  

• When: After 1492
  
  

• Where: North and South America
  
  

• Significance: Shifted global focus westward; massive cultural and biological exchange
  
  

🧭 Christopher Columbus (d. 1506)

• What: Navigator who reached the Americas
  
  

• Who: Italian sailing for Spain
  
  

• When: 1451-1506
  
  

• Where: Landed in Caribbean
  
  

• Significance: Opened up the Western Hemisphere to European colonization
  
  

🗺 Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

• What: Divided the non-European world between Spain and Portugal
  
  

• Who: Brokered by the Pope
  
  

• When: 1494
  
  

• Where: Atlantic world
  
  

• Significance: Spain got most of Americas; Portugal got Brazil and Africa/Asia routes
  
  

🌊 Ferdinand Magellan

• What: Led first circumnavigation of the globe
  
  

• Who: Portuguese explorer for Spain
  
  

• When: 1519–1522 (Magellan died 1521)
  
  

• Where: Global voyage
  
  

• Significance: Proved Earth’s roundness and size; major step in global mapping
  
  

🌐 The Atlantic World

• What: Interconnected economies and cultures of Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  
  

• Who: Involved colonizers, slaves, Indigenous peoples
  
  

• When: 15th–18th centuries
  
  

• Where: Atlantic basin
  
  

• Significance: Center of early globalization; basis for slavery and colonization
  
  

🔁 Columbian Exchange

• What: Exchange of plants, animals, diseases between Old and New Worlds
  
  

• Who: Result of Columbus’s voyages
  
  

• When: Post-1492
  
  

• Where: Atlantic Ocean
  
  

• Significance: Transformed diets, economies, and populations worldwide
  
  

🧑‍🌾 Encomienda System

• What: Spanish labor system giving colonists control over Indigenous labor
  
  

• Who: Spanish settlers
  
  

• When: 1500s
  
  

• Where: Spanish America
  
  

• Significance: Enabled exploitation and decline of native populations
  
  

⛏ Repartimiento / Mita

• What: Forced labor systems
  
  

• Who: Used by Spanish in Americas (especially Peru)
  
  

• When: 16th–17th centuries
  
  

• Where: Spanish colonies
  
  

• Significance: Continued native exploitation after encomienda reforms
  
  

🌍 Dutch East India Company and Dutch West India Company

• What: Trade companies
  
  

• Who: Chartered by the Dutch Republic
  
  

• When: 1602 (East), 1621 (West)
  
  

• Where: Asia (East), Americas and Africa (West)
  
  

• Significance: Led Dutch global trade and colonization; early multinational corporations
  
  

🗽 New Amsterdam

• What: Dutch colony on Manhattan Island
  
  

• Who: Founded by the Dutch West India Company
  
  

• When: 1625
  
  

• Where: Present-day New York City
  
  

• Significance: Became major trade port; later taken by British
  
  

🇺🇸 Charlesfort

• What: Early failed French colony
  
  

• Who: Led by Jean Ribault
  
  

• When: 1562
  
  

• Where: Present-day South Carolina
  
  

• Significance: First French settlement attempt in North America
  
  

🍁 Samuel de Champlain

• What: Founder of Quebec
  
  

• Who: French explorer and cartographer
  
  

• When: Early 1600s
  
  

• Where: New France (Canada)
  
  

• Significance: Established permanent French presence in North America
  
  

🤝 Indentured Servitude

• What: Labor system where people worked to pay off passage
  
  

• Who: European migrants, mostly poor
  
  

• When: 17th–18th centuries
  
  

• Where: English colonies, especially North America
  
  

• Significance: Provided early colonial labor before widespread African slavery

FOR MAP

🌍 Cape of Good Hope (1488)

What: Southern tip of Africa rounded by Europeans

Who: Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer

When: 1488

Where: Southern coast of Africa

Significance: First European to round the Cape; opened sea route to Asia around Africa; major milestone in Age of Exploration and Portuguese maritime dominance

Unit 13 – The Reformation and Its Consequences:

🌱 Roots of the Reformation

Great Western Schism (1378–1417)

• What: Split between rival popes in Rome and Avignon
  
  

• Who: Pope Urban VI vs. Clement VII (and later a third pope)
  
  

• Where: Europe, especially Italy and France
  
  

• When: 1378–1417
  
  

• Significance: Damaged the Church’s authority and unity, paving the way for reform movements
  
  

Council of Constance (1414–1418)

• What: Church council that resolved the Schism
  
  

• Who: Church leaders and Emperor Sigismund
  
  

• Where: Constance (modern Germany)
  
  

• When: 1414–1418
  
  

• Significance: Ended the Schism, condemned Jan Hus, and reasserted Church control temporarily
  
  

John Wycliffe (d. 1384)

• What: Early Church reformer who criticized papal power and translated the Bible
  
  

• Who: English theologian
  
  

• Where: England
  
  

• When: Died 1384
  
  

• Significance: Called for vernacular scripture and moral reform; inspired later reformers
  
  

Jan Hus (d. 1415)

• What: Bohemian priest and reformer
  
  

• Who: Influenced by Wycliffe
  
  

• Where: Bohemia (modern Czech Republic)
  
  

• When: Died 1415 (burned at the stake)
  
  

• Significance: Challenged Church corruption; martyrdom fueled future reform
  
  

Erasmus (d. 1536)

• What: Christian humanist and reform-minded scholar
  
  

• Who: Dutch priest and writer
  
  

• Where: Northern Europe
  
  

• When: Died 1536
  
  

• Significance: Criticized Church abuses but opposed splitting from the Church; laid intellectual groundwork for reform
  
  

Pope Alexander VI (d. 1503)

• What: Notoriously corrupt Renaissance pope
  
  

• Who: Rodrigo Borgia
  
  

• Where: Rome
  
  

• When: Papacy 1492–1503
  
  

• Significance: Symbol of papal corruption, undermined Church credibility
  
  

Pope Julius II (d. 1513)

• What: Warrior pope who focused on politics and building projects
  
  

• Who: Pope 1503–1513
  
  

• Where: Rome
  
  

• When: Papacy 1503–1513
  
  

• Significance: Used Church resources for wars and art (e.g., St. Peter’s); offended reformers
  
  

Indulgences

• What: Certificates sold to reduce punishment for sins
  
  

• Who: Promoted by Church leaders like Johann Tetzel
  
  

• Where: Throughout Catholic Europe
  
  

• When: Especially abused in the early 1500s
  
  

• Significance: Sparked Martin Luther’s protest; symbolized Church corruption
  
  

✝ Martin Luther and the Initial Break - LEFT HERE

Ninety-five Theses (1517)

• What: List of criticisms of the Church, especially indulgences
  
  

• Who: Martin Luther
  
  

• Where: Wittenberg, Germany
  
  

• When: 1517
  
  

• Significance: Started the Protestant Reformation; challenged Church authority
  
  

Diet of Worms (1521)

• What: Imperial assembly where Luther was ordered to recant
  
  

• Who: Luther and Emperor Charles V
  
  

• Where: Worms, Germany
  
  

• When: 1521
  
  

• Significance: Luther refused; led to his excommunication and the spread of Protestantism
  
  

⚔ Repercussions of the Split

Calvinism (Huguenots in France)

• What: Protestant branch focused on predestination and strict morality
  
  

• Who: Founded by John Calvin; followed in France by Huguenots
  
  

• Where: Switzerland and France
  
  

• When: Mid-1500s
  
  

• Significance: Influenced Reformed churches and politics; triggered religious conflict in France
  
  

Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547)

• What: English king who broke from Rome
  
  

• Who: Founder of the Church of England
  
  

• Where: England
  
  

• When: Ruled 1509–1547
  
  

• Significance: Created national church after pope refused annulment; began English Reformation
  
  

Anne Boleyn

• What: Henry VIII’s second wife and mother of Elizabeth I
  
  

• Who: Key figure in Henry’s break with Rome
  
  

• Where: England
  
  

• When: Executed in 1536
  
  

• Significance: Her marriage to Henry helped trigger the English Reformation
  
  

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

• What: Treaty ending religious war in the Holy Roman Empire
  
  

• Who: Charles V and Lutheran princes
  
  

• Where: Germany
  
  

• When: 1555
  
  

• Significance: Allowed rulers to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism; failed to settle all conflicts
  
  

Elizabethan Settlement

• What: Religious compromise in England
  
  

• Who: Queen Elizabeth I
  
  

• Where: England
  
  

• When: 1559
  
  

• Significance: Blended Protestant doctrine with traditional forms; brought stability to England
  
  

Spanish Armada (1588)

• What: Failed invasion of England by Spain
  
  

• Who: Philip II of Spain vs. Elizabeth I of England
  
  

• Where: English Channel
  
  

• When: 1588
  
  

• Significance: English victory marked rise of Protestant England and decline of Spanish dominance
  
  

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572)

• What: Mass killing of French Huguenots
  
  

• Who: Carried out by Catholic mobs with royal approval
  
  

• Where: Paris and other French cities
  
  

• When: August 24, 1572
  
  

• Significance: Escalated French Wars of Religion; shocked Europe
  
  

Edict of Nantes (1598)

• What: Law granting religious freedom to Huguenots
  
  

• Who: Issued by Henry IV of France
  
  

• Where: France
  
  

• When: 1598
  
  

• Significance: Ended major civil war; rare example of religious tolerance at the time
  
  

✝ Counter-Reformation

Council of Trent (1545–1563)

• What: Catholic response to Protestantism
  
  

• Who: Catholic Church leaders
  
  

• Where: Trent (modern Italy)
  
  

• When: 1545–1563
  
  

• Significance: Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, reformed corruption, and revitalized Church authority
  
  

The Society of Jesus (the Jesuits)

• What: Catholic missionary and educational order
  
  

• Who: Founded by Ignatius of Loyola
  
  

• Where: Europe and abroad
  
  

• When: Founded in 1540
  
  

• Significance: Led Catholic education and missionary work; key part of Counter-Reformation
  
  

🔥 Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)

Defenestration of Prague (1618)

• What: Protestants threw Catholic officials out a window
  
  

• Who: Bohemian Protestant nobles
  
  

• Where: Prague, Bohemia
  
  

• When: 1618
  
  

• Significance: Sparked the Thirty Years’ War between Protestants and Catholics
  
  

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

• What: Treaties ending the Thirty Years’ War
  
  

• Who: European powers including the Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden
  
  

• Where: Westphalia (modern Germany)
  
  

• When: 1648
  
  

Significance: Ended religious wars in Europe; established state sovereignty and modern diplomacy