Republicans in Power: Native American Policies and the War of 1812

Policy Towards Native Americans

Strains in U.S. Policy (1783-1789):
- Conquest Theory (Articles of Confederation era): This theory suggested the U.S. had the right to claim Native American lands through conquest.
- Henry Knox (Secretary of War): Argued against the Conquest Theory because it necessitated ongoing conquest and conflict.
1789: Acknowledgment of Native American sovereignty.
- Despite this acknowledgment, Native Americans remained concerned about U.S. intentions and encroachment on their lands.

Ownership vs. Occupancy

Weakening Native American Control: The U.S. aimed to diminish Native Americans' control over their land.
Colonial-era Maps: These maps had recognized Native Americans' farming practices as evidence of land ownership.
U.S. Politicians' Downplaying of Native American Farming: U.S. politicians minimized the significance of Native American agriculture.
John Quincy Adams: Suggested that ownership of land should be associated solely with farming.
Uncultivated Areas: Designated as having only occupancy status, not full ownership.
Supreme Court Ruling: Weakened Native American land claims on uncultivated areas.

Parties and Ideologies on Western Expansion

Parties Involved: Federalist and Republican parties both participated in western expansion.
- Western expansion was more central to Jefferson’s “Empire of Liberty” than to the Federalists.
Ideologies Supporting Expansion:
- Western expansionists: Advocated for territorial growth.
- Northern “assimilationists”: Believed Native Americans should adopt American culture.

Native American Land Cessions

1816-1830: Significant land cessions by Native Americans to the U.S.
Geographic Areas: The map illustrates cessions in areas spanning from the Great Lakes region, Ohio River Valley, and territories that would become states like Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas.
Areas were ceded prior to 1816, from 1816-1830, and unceded areas in 1830. Dotted lines show earlier cessions by tribes where a later cession by other tribes was required to complete the possession.

Federalists’ Ideas on Western Expansion

Treaties and Land Acquisition: Federalists made treaties with Native Americans and acquired land.
Concerns:
- Maintaining peace with Native Americans.
- Preference for factory workers over farmers (prioritizing industrial development).

Republicans’ Concerns Over Federalists’ Policies

Fear of Federalists Concessions: Republicans worried that Federalists would concede too much to Native Americans and their British allies.
Undermining Independence: Republicans viewed Federalists' policies as potentially undermining U.S. independence.
Unfounded Fear: The fear was somewhat unsupported as western and acquisitions occurred under Federalists.

Jefferson and Native Americans

British Instigation: Jefferson believed the British incited conflict between Native Americans and settlers.
Improved Relations: He thought the relationship could improve during the Republican era due to white numerical superiority.
View of Native Americans:
- Called Native Americans “children.”
- Believed their future involved adopting American values or facing destruction.

Jefferson and Native Americans’ Land

Need for Land: Jefferson thought American farmers needed more land and encouraged Native Americans to:
- Abandon their semi-sedentary ways.
- Migrate to cities.
- Sell their land to US citizens.

Native Strategies for Survival

Cherokee: Adopted an assimilationist strategy (further detailed later).
Shawnee Resistance:
- Pan-Indian Confederation: Aimed to unite various tribes.
- Treaty of Grenville (1795): Ceded Ohio to the U.S.
- Tecumseh: Shawnee leader in Indiana who tried to create a Native American confederacy to resist further encroachment.

Tecumseh & Tenskwatawa (the Prophet)

Tecumseh’s “Confederacy” Principles:
- Reject white culture.
- Refuse to give up land to whites.
- Abstain from alcohol.
Campaign: Tecumseh campaigned to create a strong Native American confederacy.

Tecumseh’s Speech to the Osage (1810)

Context: The speech, recorded by John Hunter, a captive among the Osage since childhood, highlighted key issues:
Unity: Called for unity among Native American tribes to resist white expansion.
Grievances:
- Emphasized the loss of Native American lives due to white avarice.
- Whites initially asked for little land for “a wigwam;” now they want all hunting grounds.
No Peace: Where white people are, there is no peace.
Despise and Cheat: The white men despise, cheat, abuse, and insult Native Americans.
Call to Action:
- Asked the Osage to take up the tomahawk.
- If united, they could cause rivers to stain the great waters with blood.
Consequences of Disunity: If tribes did not unite, they would be destroyed one by one.
Alliance with the British:
- Asserted that the King of England (the "Great Father over the great waters") was angry with the white people.
- The British would send warriors, rifles, and other supplies to aid Native Americans.
Fearlessness: Emphasized that white people were not invincible, and Native American fathers had killed many of them.
Love for the Great Spirit: Union,Shared struggles, divine help, and future happiness.
- They must fight each other’s battles.
- Great Spirit will destroy enemies and make red children happy.

U.S. Foreign Policy

European War and US Neutrality: The US tried to remain neutral during the European conflict but faced challenges.
Conflicts Over Commerce: Interference with US trade led to conflicts.
1807 Embargo: An attempt to avoid war by stopping US exports.
War of 1812: Resulted from continued conflicts with Britain.

Chesapeake Affair (June 1807)

Incident: British ship Leopard fired on the American ship Chesapeake after it refused to allow British to search for deserters.
Jefferson’s Response: The 1807 Embargo Act.

1807 Embargo Act

Purpose: Response to Britain and France intercepting US commercial vessels.
Jefferson’s Belief: Europe needed US goods.
Rationale:
- Belief that an embargo had worked during the American Revolution.
- “Peaceable coercion”.
Impact: Stopped all US exports.

Embargo Act’s Ineffectiveness

Negative Impacts:
- Hurt the US economy.
- Angered northern merchants.
- Failed to convince Europe to change policies.
Replacement: Replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act in 1809.

Conflict Continues with Britain

Trade Termination: In 1810, Madison terminated trade with Britain.
Impressment: 1810-11, Great Britain impressed over 6000 Americans.
War Hawks: 1812 War Hawks claimed Britain aided Native American resistance.
Expansionism: Expansionists wanted to seize Canada from Britain.
Federalist Opposition: Federalists in New England did not support war.

War of 1812

Duration: The war lasted two years.
Outcome: No clear winner or loser.
Territorial Changes: No property changed hands.
Treaty of Ghent: Maintained the status quo.
Shipping Reopened: With Napoleon’s defeat in 1815 shipping reopened.

War’s Consequences

Nationalism: A rise in American nationalism and the prominence of Andrew Jackson.
Party System Weakening: The war contributed to a weakening of the existing party system.
Losers: Federalists and Native Americans.

War of 1812: Nationalism

Andrew Jackson: Victory at the Battle of New Orleans.
American Farmers: American “farmers” defeat British troops.
Nationalism: Strengthened American nationalism.
Jackson’s Image: Important to (future president) Jackson’s image.

War of 1812: Federalists & Hartford Convention

Hartford Convention: Federalists met in Hartford during the war.
Complaints:
- Southern dominance of politics.
- 3/5 clause.
Rumors: Federalists wanted to create their own country.
Illegal Trade: Federalists engaged in illegal trade during the war.
Consequences: Branded as traitors, and the Federalist Party dissolved.

War of 1812: Native Americans

Prophetstown:
- Established Prophetstown in 1808 (near the juncture of the Wabash and Tippecanoe rivers).
Battle of Tippecanoe:
- In 1811, while Tecumseh was establishing his confederacy, William Henry Harrison destroyed Prophetstown after defeating the Prophet at the Battle of Tippecanoe.
Tecumseh’s Death:
- Tecumseh joined the British side in the war and was killed in 1813 in Canada.
Western Expansion:
- The war set the stage for western expansion as tribes in the south and west were weakened.

Tecumseh in Indiana

Key Locations: The map highlights locations such as Prophetstown, Fort Wayne, Fort Harrison and Detroit.
Treaty Lines: Different treaty lines are represented on the map such as the 1795 Greenville Treaty Line and the Treaty of Fort Wayne, indicating land cessions.

Indiana Territory, War of 1812

Conflicts and Incidents: Illustrates several forts and battle sites, indicating key military engagements in the region.

Battle of Thames and Death of Tecumseh

Description: Depicts the Battle of the Thames, including the Kentucky mounted volunteers led by Colonel Richard M. Johnson.

Post-War Republican Party Policy: 2nd National Bank

First National Bank: The First National Bank's charter ended in 1811.
War’s Cost: The war led to internal taxation, verge of financial collapse, and the absence of a national bank to stabilize the currency.
Beliefs: Belief that the expired bank may have helped finance the war.
Second National Bank: The Second National Bank was chartered in 1816.

Post-War Republican Party Policy: Tariffs

Federalist Unpreparedness: Federalists were caught unprepared for the War of 1812, leading to the idea that manufacturing was needed.
Protective Tariffs: In 1816, Republicans implemented protective tariffs.
Purpose: These were the first important tariffs to promote national industry.
Opposition: A group of 33 “old Republicans” objected.

Documents, chapter 10

Jefferson’s Public and Private Indian Policy
Lewis Describes the Shoshone
A Slave Demands that Jefferson Abolish Slavery
The British and their Indian Allies
Hamilton’s Path to Enlistment in the War of 1812

Lewis & Clark

Territorial Context: The map shows the Louisiana Purchase, Oregon Country (disputed with Britain), and Spanish Possessions.
Lewis and Clark's Route: Route west.

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-06

Route to mouth of Columbia River (1804-05)
Return and exploratory routes to St. Louis (1805-06)
Noteworthy points on route

William Charles, "A Scene on the Frontiers as Practiced by the 'Humane' British and their 'Worthy' Allies," 1812

Propaganda:
- Cartoon portrays the British and their Native American allies in a negative light.
- Aimed to mobilize men to fight against the British, depicting them as instigators of violence through Native Americans.

Chapter 10: Comparative Questions

How did Jefferson’s ideas about America compare with those of A Slave?
To what extent were Jefferson’s goals for Native Americans consistent with Lewis’s observations about the Shoshone? Did Jefferson and Lewis believe that Indians could participate fully and equally in American society? If so, how? If not, why?
How did Hamilton’s experience in the war of 1812 compare with Charles’s cartoon that sought to mobilize men to fight against the British?
How did the depictions of Indians in the Charles cartoon compare to views expressed by Jefferson and Lewis?
To what extent do the documents in this chapter suggest broad agreement among Americans about the meaning of liberty?
To what extent do the documents in this chapter provide evidence of the strength of democratic aspirations in the first quarter of the 19th century? What values competed with democracy?