AP COMP GOV VOCAB

  • Civil society - The way citizens organize themselves and define themselves and their interests.
  • Advanced democracies - Countries with well-established democratic governments and high levels of economic development.
  • Communism - A political ideology implemented by Karl Marx of a classless society, limiting individual freedom and dividing wealth equally.
  • The newly-industrializing countries - Are experiencing rapid economic growth, and also have shown a tendency toward democratization and political and social stability.
  • Less-developed countries - Lack significant economic development, and they also tend to have authoritarian governments.
  • States - An organization that maintains control over a territory through political institutions.
  • Institutions - Organizations that help turn political ideas into policy.
  • Sovereignty - the authority to rule, and carry out actions or policies within a territory.
  • Nation - A group of people bound together by a common political identity, and common traits such as religion, race, ideals, etc..
  • Nationalism - The sense of belonging that differentiates one nation from another.
  • Binational or Multinational States or Stateless Nations
  • Permeable Borders - anything that crosses a nation-state’s borders without official sanctions demonstrates a limit to that nation-state’s capacity and sovereignty.
    • Limits the capacity and sovereignty of a state
  • Regime - The rules that a state sets and follows in exerting its power.
  • Clientlism - The exchange of goods and services for political support.
  • Legitimacy: the right to rule
    • Traditional - tradition should determine who should rule and how.
    • Charismatic - based on the personality of a determined ruler o small group.
    • Ration-legal - based on a system of well-established laws and procedure.
  • Political culture (consensual/conflictual)- collection of political, beliefs, values, and practices that the government is based on and reflects.
  • Social capital - the amount of reciprocity and trust that exists among citizens and between citizens and the state.
  • Political ideology - Political values held by individuals regarding the basic goals of governments and politics.
    • Liberalism - Individual political and economic freedom. Liberals seek to maximze freedom … speach, religion, association.
    • Communism - Value equality over freedom. Communists advocate the take of all resources by the state so they can be equality distributed, hence no private ownership of property.
    • Socialism - Mix of liberalism and communism. Accept and promote private owenrship of property and free market principles. However, socialists believe the state must control the economy or even own key industries.
    • Fascism - People exist in degress of minority and superiority. Believe they must mold society and eliminate any obstacles that might weaken them.
  • Theocracy: a political system in which religious leaders control political decisions and religious law provides the basis for policy decisions.
  • Reform
  • Revolution - Major revision or overthrow of existing institutions
  • Coup d’etat - Repleace the leadership of a country with a new leader

Appraches towards change

  • Radicalism
  • Liberalism - support gradual change and reform rather than revolution.
  • Conservatism
  • Reactionary beliefs

Democracies

  • Indirect Democracy - Elected officials represent the people
  • Direct Democracy - The people have an immediate say over many government decisions
  • Liberal (substantive) democracies
    • Civil liberties
    • Open civil society
    • Competitive elections
    • Neutrality of judiciary
  • Illiberal (procedural) democracies - Have significant restrictions
    • Has a rule of law, but it is not followed
    • Political parties and interest groups are restricted (elections lack true competitiveness)
  • Three branches
    • Legislatures, executives, judicial court
  • Parliamentary system - Citizens vote for legislative reps, which pick the leader of the executive branch from the majority party.
    • Head of State: Symbolic figurehead
    • Head of Government: PM
    • Fusion of powers between executive & legislative branches
    • Cabinet members = leaders of the majority party in Parliament
    • The majority party in the legislature almost always votes for the bills proposed by its leadership.
    • The chief executive cannot veto legislation
    • PM is the leader of the executive and legislative branch.
    • The cabinet is the most important collective decision-making body
      • Led by PM or “first among equals”
      • Ministers are leaders of the majority party in the parliament, if there is no majority party a cabinet coalition will be formed.
        • In presidential systems, the president elects the cabinet members, sometimes they must be approved by the legislature.
          • President can remove them from office
  • Presidential system - Citizens vote for legislative representatives and executive branch leaders and both branches function with a separation of powers/system of checks and balances.
    • President – Head of State & Head of Gov’t
    • The president is chief executive and picks cabinet members
    • President can veto legislation
    • Fixed Terms
    • Semi-presidential: PM and president coexist
    • Pluralism - Many groups hold power and they all compete to influence the government’s decision-making.
    • In democratic pluralism, the formation of interest groups is spontaneous, in democratic corporatism interest groups must be recognized by the state.
    • Democracy Index - ranks countries in terms of democratic practices based on civil rights, electoral process, pluralism, political participation, and culture.
  • Factors that encourage legitimacy in democratic and authoritarian rules:
    • Fair, competive elections
    • Open political participation by citizens
    • Economic well-being
    • Charismatic leadership
    • Nationalism
    • Rigged election questions the legitimacy of leadership.

Authoritarian

  • Power is held by political elites
  • Ruled by single dictator, hereditary monarchy, aristocracts, or a single political party
    • Communism - a political ideology created by Karl Marx that foments an extremist equal society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to its abilities.
    • Corporatism - An arrangement in which government officials interact with people/groups outside the government before setting policy.
      • Authoritarian regimes control de public through corporatism by creating or recognizing organizations to represent the interest of the people, making the government appear “less” authoritarian, but in reality it eliminates all other groups not created by the state.
  • Economy is tighly controlled
  • Citizens have little to no input on selection of leaders
  • Restriction of civil liberties very common

Totalitarianism

  • Centralized regime that with a strong ideology that seeks to transform and absorb aspects of the state, society, and the economy.
  • Much more negative connotation
  • Repressive, violent often detested regime

Military rule

  • Common in states where legitimacy and stability are in question, and the military intervenes in politics.
  • Nondemocratic
  • Usually begins by coup d’etat - a forced takeover of the government
  • Often restrict civil rights and liberties

Economies

  • Command economy - the government owns almost all industrial enterprises
  • Market economies - Economy based on private ownership of property and little interference from government regulation.

Cleavages - Divisions within a society

  • Cross-cutting - divide society into many different groups that may conflict on one issue but cooperate in another
  • Coinciding - each argument aligns the same groups against the other, more explosive

Political efficacy - an individual's ability to understand and influence political events.

Political socialization - The process by which people acquire political beliefs and values

Political participation - through subject activities that involve obedience to authority or political processes.

Civil society - Voluntary organizations outside the state that help people define their own interests.

Cleavages influence political beliefs and behaviors

Political institutions - structures of a political system that help carry out the work of governing.

  • Supranational organization - A variety of states that pool their sovereignty together through integration to gain political and economic clout.
    • Globalization - forces that tie the people of the world together, the integration of social, economic, cultural, and environmental activities.
    • Fragmentation - forces that tear the people of the world apart, loyalty to ethnicity, language, religion, and cultural identity.
  • Centripetal - binds together the people of a state (nationalism)
  • Centrifugal - tears apart the people of a state, destabilizes the country, and forces the government to fall apart (separatist movements, devolution)
  • Devolution - decentralization, transfer of power from a central govt to lower/regional govt
    • Causes:
      • Ethnic forces
      • Economic forces
      • Spatial forces

Systems of government

  • Unitary - All power is concentrated in the central government, core area, making it responsible for most policy areas.
  • Confederal - Spreads power among many sub-units (states) and has a weak central government.
  • Federal - Power is divided between the central government and sub-units.

Executives

  • Carry out the laws and policies of a state.
  • Head of state - symbolizes and represents the people
  • Head of government - carries with the daily tasks of running the state, directs the activities of other members of the executive branch
  • Chief executive - the most important person in policy-making processes.
  • Cabinet - most important decision-making body in parliament

Legislature

  • A branch that makes laws
  • Bicameral
  • Increases legitimacy
  • Assembly members - formulate, vote, and debate on political policies. Often control the state's budget.

Bureaucracies

  • Agencies that implement government policy.
  • Usually part of the executive branch
  • Basic characteristics:
    • Hierarchical authority structure
    • Task specialization
    • Extensive rules and clear goals
    • Non-elected positions
  • In democracies
    • Bureaucrats usually have discretionary power, allowing them to make small decision that influence policy
  • In authoritarian regimes
    • The head of govt holds almost complete control over bureaucratic activities
    • Bureaucrats receive jobs through patronage

Judiciairie

  • Judiciary: the set of institutions that are created to
    • Interpret the application of public laws and policies
    • Settle public disputes in the nation-state
    • Enforce criminal law
  • Maintains the rule of law - governance system operating under a known and transparent set

of procedural rules (laws)

  • Authoritarian systems generally have little/no independence; decisions are controlled by the chief exec.
  • Constitutional Courts - Highest judicial body, rules on constitutionality of laws
    • Defend democratic principles of a government
  • Judicial review - Power of the judiciary to review laws and executive actions for their constitutionality

First Past The Post

  • FPTP or single-member districts (or winner take all) is a system that provides a single seat within a district to the person winning the greatest number of votes.
  • This will often lead to a two-party system.
  • Individuals compete in a specific territory for one office or seat. The winner is the one with the most votes.

Proportional representation

  • Multi-member districts
  • More than one legislative seat is contested in each district
  • Voters cast their ballots for a party rather than for a candidate, and the percentage of votes a party receives determines how many seats the party will gain in the legislature.

Referendum - A ballot called by the government on a policy issue

Plebescite - A ballot to consult public opinion in a non-binding way

Initiative - A vote on policy initiated by the people

Interest groups - Organizations that want to influence and shape public policy, represent the political point of view of people who want to influence policy making.

  • Common policy issues:
    • Economic performance
    • Social welfare
    • Environment
    • Civil liberties
  • GDP - wealth produced within a country
  • GNP - like GDP, but including the income citizens earn outside the country
  • GDP per capita - total value of GDP divided by the population
  • HDI - measures a country's standard of living.

MÉXICO

History of Revolution, One party Dominance, Authoritarianism

  • Oil (40% GDP)
  • Regionalism - The variety of geographical environments separates regions
    • North - Richer, much more developed
    • South/central areas - Poorer, denser population, more ejidatarios (people who borrow land), indigenous majority
  • Cleavage - Mestizos (60%) and Amerindians (30%)
  • 78% live in urban areas
  • 83% catholic
  • Colonialism - Spain ruled for three centuries
  • Miguel Hidalgo began independence in 1810
  • México gained independence in 1821 but went through a chaotic period
    • Lost half its territory
  • Porfiriato (1876-1911)
    • Dictatorship/Authoritarianism
    • 34 years of stable rule
    • Growth between rich and poor
    • Foreign investment and economic growth
  • Revolution 1910
    • Turned into a civil war
    • Emiliano Zapata leads peasants
    • Pancho Villa led upper class
  • Mexican Constitution of 1917
  • Plutarco Elias Calles
    • Implemented Sexenio
    • Established PRI
    • 1924-1928
  • Lazaro Cardenas (1934-1940)
    • The nationalized oil industry, PEMEX
  • 1994 - NAFTA - Elimination of trade barriers
    • This globalization led to Economic Crisis and Zapatista Rebellion
  • 1997 - PRI lost absolute majority in Chamber of Deputies (lh)
  • December 1, 2000 Vicente Fox won elections with PAN and ended the 71 year PRI rule
  • 2006-2012 Vicente Calderon (PAN)
  • 2012-2018 Enrique Penanieta (PRI)
  • 2018 - 2024 AMLO (Morena)
  • FPTP Presidential Elections
  • Developing Democracy since 2000
  • Federal System
    • 31 states, 1 federal district (strong central government)
  • Presidential
  • Bicameral
    • Chamber of Deputies
    • Chamber of Senates

States

  • 31 state governors
    • 6 year term (no reelection)
  • President can have Senate remove governor
  • (1929-1989) All PRI governors

Executive

  • Presidential power is very strong

Bureaucracy

  • Huge - 1.5 million people
  • Parastatl sector - PEMEX

Legislature

  • Chamber Deputies (lower house)
    • 500 members
    • 200 elected FPTP
    • 300 elected PR
    • 3 year terms (since 2015, 4 consecutive terms allowed)
    • Based on population
  • Senate (upper house)
    • 128, 3 senators from each state
      • (FPTP – 2 majority, 1 next highest vote) / Rest seats elected through PR
    • 6 year terms (since 2015, 2 consecutive terms allowed)
  • Judiciary
    • Supreme court - judicial review
    • 11 Magistrates who serve 15-year terms
      • Nominated by the president and approved by the Senate
    • Very weak
    • Code Law

Multiparty State

(PRD, PRI, PAN)

PAN - leftist, much more liberal, support from south, supports welfare, promotes social reforms

PRI - centrist, dominated 71 years

PRD - rightist, conservative, catholic, support from north

Electoral Reform

  • Increase number of Senate seats (68-128) in 1993
  • Creation of INE and IFE

UK

Unitary Government - Devolution

  • Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly and Northern Ireland Assembly
  • Major of London is elected by residents of London
  • GB = England, Scotland & Wales
  • UK = GB + Northern Ireland
  • Parliament is a democracy with a constitutional monarchy
  • Head State receives foreign ambassadors
  • PM appoints cabinet members
    • Leader of the majority party in the parliament
  • Church England - established religion
    • Monarch = head of church = legitimacy
  • No single written constitution or written laws guide the govt
  • House of Commons
    • MP elected by the people every 5 years
      • Can be earlier than 5 years through a vote of no confidence of ⅔ vote
    • Makes laws, passes bills, conducts votes of no confidence, debates issues, represents people, maintains budget
    • Majority party can make the PM step down
    • Speaker HC - John Becrow
    • Loyal Opposition - “Shadow Government”
    • PM, Cabinet, Collective Responsibility
    • 650 members
      • FPTP
      • 1 MP per district
      • 5 year term
  • House of Lords
    • Hereditary (hereditary peers) or appointed (life peers)
    • 800 members
    • Debate, refine, amend, delay but don't block legislation.
  • First Past the Post System
    • 650 district, one MP is selected from each district
  • PM is elected by a majority party in the House of Commons, if there is not majority party a coalition must be formed.

Judiciary

  • Supreme Court checks on the legislative/executive power
  • Protects civil rights and liberties
  • 12 judiciaries, law lords
  • Gradual Extension of Voting Rights
    • Spurred by the Industrial Revolution
    • Great Reform Act of 1832 – 300,000+ men gained the right to vote
    • 1867 – working class people
    • 1918 – Women age 28+, men 21+
    • 1928 – Women 21+

History

  • After WWII = Collective Consensus
    • From Labour and Conservatives for the nation to provide healthcare, pensions and other benefits to citizens
    • Creation of a welfare state
      • Universal healthcare system NHS, paid through taxation
  • Economic Crisis of the 1970s led to the victory of the Conservatives and the rise of Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990)
    • Cut social welfare & strengthened defense
    • Thatcherism
      • Privatized business and industry
      • Returned to market forced controls on the economy
      • Neoliberalism - free competition among businesses within market
  • 1997 = Tony Blair's “New Labour” called for a third-way “centrist approach”
    • Devolution to Scotland and Wales
  • 2010-2016 = David Cameron ruler under the Conservative Party, resigned after Brexit referendum vote.
    • No majority party so a coalition was made between conservatives and liberal democrats.
    • Nick Clegg (LD) - Deputy PM
  • 2015 - Conservatives (Tories) win a majority
    • Theresa May entered office in 2016
    • Withdrawal of EU

Labour Party

  • Leftist party
  • Urban and industrialized areas
  • Scotland and Wales: poorer and working classes
  • More liberal

Conservative Party

  • Rural and suburban areas
  • England: wealthier people

Liberal Party

  • Centrist party
  • Coalition with Conservatives and David Cameron

UKIP Party

  • Far-right party, committed to Brexit vote

BREXIT

  • Brexit the decision to exit or remain in the EU
  • People voted because they were promised that money would be saved and directed to NHS
  • Majority won and UK left EU

RUSSIA

  • History Communism and Totalitarianism
  • Transition to Illiberal Democracy
  • Trends toward Authoritarian rule
  • Largest successor state of SU

The Bolshevik Revolution 1917

  • Led by Lenin
  • Overthrew tsarist government
  • Communist party
  • Marxism (Karl Marx)
  • 1922 created the USSR

Stalinism (1929-1953)

  • Communist Party took complete control
  • Private land ownership was abolished
  • Took land from peasants to create farms
  • Five-year plan - goals for the production of heavy industry
  • 5% population assassinated for treason
  • Media censorship and state control
  • Nikita Krushchev led movements of reform

Gorbachev (1985-1991)

  • Wanted to adopt communist system to new conditions
  • 3 goals
    • Glasnost: Political openess
    • Democratization
    • Perestroika - Economic Reform
  • Aug. 1991 conservatives opposed reform and tried to remove Gorbachev from power through a coup d’etat and failed
    • Stopped by protestors following Boris Yeltsin (president of the Russian Federation)
    • Boris wanted to create a Western democracy
    • Constitution of 1993
    • Shock therapy - rapid, radical market reform