Exploring Teaching Practices in Physical Education with Culturally Diverse Classes: A Cross-Cultural Study

Exploring Teaching Practices in Physical Education with Culturally Diverse Classes: A Cross-Cultural Study

Abstract and Introduction

This cross-cultural comparative study, conducted by Symeon Dagkas from the University of Birmingham, aimed to investigate Physical Education (PE) teachers' knowledge, understanding, and practices when teaching students from diverse cultural backgrounds, with a specific focus on Muslim students. The research involved $13$ PE teachers ( $6$ from England and $7$ from Greece) who participated in face-to-face interviews. The interviews explored issues related to teaching culturally diverse classes, teachers' subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and their understanding of students' religion and culture.

The initial findings indicated that teachers generally possessed limited knowledge regarding their students' culture and religion. Notably, 'novice' teachers with less cultural knowledge encountered greater difficulties in effectively teaching students from diverse backgrounds. The study emphasizes the critical need to enhance student teachers' knowledge and understanding within their initial teacher education (ITE) courses to enable them to respond and operate effectively, thereby promoting broader inclusion of students from ethnic and culturally diverse backgrounds in PE and extra-curricular activities (ECA).

Research Gaps and Significance of Teacher Knowledge

There is a notable scarcity of research examining the relationship between PE teachers' subject matter knowledge and their practices in culturally diverse classrooms. This gap is particularly evident in both Greece and the UK, where addressing the needs of Muslim students is increasingly important, given their underrepresentation in physical activity and sports (Benn, 2002; Dagkas & Benn, 2006).

The recent surge of interest in teachers' knowledge has been driven by a desire to map the knowledge base of teaching, which serves as a foundation for training programs and highlights the inherent complexity of the profession. This movement also aims to accord teaching professional recognition (Reynolds, 1989; Shulman, 1987). Shulman (1986) pointed out a significant oversight in research: the lack of study into teachers' understanding of their subject matter and its role in facilitating student learning.

Grossman (1990) underscored the importance of pedagogical content knowledge, attributing the paucity of studies in this area to the challenges in conceptualizing how subject matter knowledge functions in teaching. Grossman (1990) delineated pedagogical content knowledge into four key categories:

1. Conceptions of purposes for teaching subject matter.

2. Knowledge of students' understanding (including common misconceptions and difficulties).

3. Curricular knowledge.

4. Knowledge of instructional strategies.

While much of this knowledge is ostensibly gained through conventional curriculum and instruction courses in pre-service teacher education, both student teachers and teacher educators do not always fully appreciate their value. Studies (Garmon, 2004; Ambe, 2006) suggest that student teachers' understandings are shaped by a variety of past experiences, personal beliefs, attitudes, and intercultural encounters. Despite a growing cultural diversity in school populations, Fincher and Schempp (1994), Brown (2004), and Ambe (2006) indicate a trend of more white Caucasian individuals entering the teaching profession.

This paper posits that it is crucial for teachers to deepen their understanding of their students' cultures and the profound impact these cultures have on participation, comprehension, and performance in PE and ECA. According to Sparks (1994), integrating multicultural perspectives effectively within any discipline necessitates that educators cultivate the knowledge and skills to champion principles of social justice and equality for all, and, crucially, to instill these attitudes in their students. Teachers bear the responsibility of instructing students from diverse cultural backgrounds, and thus, their attitudes must reflect a genuine appreciation for the unique cultural and social characteristics of each student. This task can be particularly challenging when students exhibit social characteristics markedly different from those of their teachers.

Comer (1988) highlighted the need for teachers to forge strong bonds with their students, which fosters the development of confidence, social skills, and self-esteem, enabling each student to seize all available educational opportunities. Furthermore, teachers should maintain high expectations for students from ethnic minority groups, involve them in problem-solving activities, and assist them in identifying optimal career goals. As Ambe (2006, p. 692) recommends, teachers should embrace a 'culturally responsive pedagogy' or engage in 'culturally responsive teaching,' implementing practices that thoughtfully consider students' religious and cultural backgrounds to promote their knowledge, skills, and attitudes effectively.

Multicultural Physical Education

Ambe (2006) defines 'multiculturalism' as the active valuing of diversity and the promotion of equal opportunity for all individuals through an 'understanding of contributions and perspectives of people of different races, ethnicity, culture, language, religion…' (p. 691). Multicultural education, as described by Butt & Pahnos (1995), involves addressing and understanding the needs of every child, responding to each sensitively, fairly, and effectively. Its purpose is to cater to the demands of a socially diverse society by fostering an understanding and appreciation of social diversity and cultural pluralism (Sparks, 1994). Furthermore, multicultural experiences broaden one's perspective, contributing to a more global outlook (Sparks et al., 1996).

Effective multicultural education actively cultivates cultural pluralism and respect for diversity, directly confronts prejudice and discrimination, and champions the objectives of social justice and the eradication of oppression. Teaching PE from a multicultural perspective presents a unique challenge, as students bring widely varied backgrounds, experiences, attitudes, values, and skills related to games, sports, activities, and leisure into the classroom (Torrey & Ashy, 1997). For instance, factors such as dress codes, parental pressures, and religious festivals can significantly influence students' participation in PE and ECA sessions.

Social development has always been, and will remain, a vital component of a high-quality physical education program (Bucher & Wuest, 1987). Through social development, teachers can promote appreciation and understanding of diverse ethnic and racial groups, as well as differences stemming from gender (Sparks, 1994). It is teachers' behaviors that empower students to develop positive self-esteem and respect for others. Research indicates that teachers can foster communication and socialization among peers by modeling positive attitudes themselves, for example, by greeting students in their native language or by correctly pronouncing their names (Torrey & Ashy, 1997). For teachers working with Muslim students, this may entail an awareness of specific Islamic religious and cultural requirements such as dress codes, observance of religious festivals, appropriate body exposure, and language considerations (Dagkas & Benn, 2006). Consequently, this study specifically examines the teaching of physical education to Greek and British Muslim students, whose particular needs in this area are often overlooked (Dagkas & Benn, 2006). The study thoroughly investigates teaching practices concerning PE in culturally diverse classes, particularly focusing on teachers' perceptions of Muslim students' participation in physical education and exploring the relationship between teachers' knowledge and their practical application in culturally diverse environments. The overarching aim of this research is to explore the knowledge base and practices of Greek and British PE teachers with respect to teaching PE to Muslim students.

Methodology

The foundational principle and value of comparative studies lie in their ability to '…gain greater awareness and a deeper understanding of social reality in different national contexts' (Hantrais, 1996, p. 2). This paper acknowledges the inherent complexities of any cross-national comparative research, recognizing that while similarities may exist, there are also fundamental differences in socio-cultural aspects, ideologies, and institutional structures that profoundly influence teaching practices.

The study sample comprised $13$ PE teachers: $6$ from England ( $2$ male and $4$ female) drawn from two secondary schools in the Midlands, and $7$ from Greece ( $3$ male and $4$ female) from three state secondary schools in Northern Greece. The teachers, all sharing a White Caucasian ethnic background and residing in predominantly white countries, were selected because they had experience teaching PE to culturally diverse classes with significant percentages of Muslim students. The general educational progression and processes for teachers were similar in both countries.

In the identified English schools, Muslim pupils constituted a high percentage of the student population, ranging from 90 ext{%} to 95 ext{%}. All PE teachers in these schools participated. Similarly, the three Greek state secondary schools in Northern Greece also had a high population of Muslim students, making up 30 ext{%} to 35 ext{%} of the total school population, and all PE teachers in these schools were included in the study.

All teachers in the sample were formally qualified: those in the UK through postgraduate Initial Teacher Training (ITT) courses, and those in Greece through four years of undergraduate studies with Qualifying Teacher Status specializing in PE. Their professional careers spanned from $3$ years (classified as novice teachers) to $20$ years (experienced teachers). This distinction was crucial for the study, as novice teachers expressed different levels of confidence in teaching culturally diverse classes compared to their more experienced counterparts.

The researcher's personal background (Greek native, working in an English higher education institution) facilitated the construction of similar interview protocols for both groups of teachers, enabling a consistent exploration of school-based PE experiences. Semi-structured interviews were employed, providing sufficient scope to explore both similarities and differences in teachers' perspectives. The interview schedules encompassed questions pertaining to teachers' perceptions and opinions regarding teaching culturally diverse classes, their knowledge of learners and student characteristics, their subject matter knowledge, how initial teacher education courses prepared them to address issues like cultural pluralism in PE classes, and finally, questions related to teachers' knowledge of Muslim religion and culture. The interviews were audio-recorded and subsequently transcribed, allowing for 'respondent validation' with both sets of teachers.

Data analysis involved coding the transcriptions and identifying common themes. This process utilized both deductive and inductive analytical procedures, which included scanning the data for categories and relationships among initial themes, developing provisional typologies based on an examination of initial cases, and then modifying and refining these typologies based on subsequent cases (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993; Dagkas & Benn, 2006). Consequently, new categories and sub-divisions within existing categories emerged (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). Prior to each interview, teachers were assured of anonymity and confidentiality for all shared data. For this reason, direct quotes provided in the findings section are accompanied only by the teacher’s gender, country of origin, and degree of experience (e.g., GT for Greek teacher, UKT for UK teacher). The trustworthiness of the study was further enhanced through 'peer debriefing' and 'members check' methods, where preliminary results were discussed informally with a sample of teachers from both countries (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).

Findings

Inadequate Teacher Training

The most significant issue raised by teachers from both England and Greece was the inadequacy of initial teacher training regarding pedagogical matters related to multicultural education and the teaching of culturally diverse PE classes. All participating teachers reported that they learned how to address cultural and religious issues in their classrooms primarily through their own experience and by seeking advice from expert colleagues. For instance, a novice female teacher from the UK explained:

Religious and Cultural Challenges

All teachers identified situations where Muslim students encountered problems during PE due to religious and cultural reasons. They noted making allowances, which included granting permission for non-participation in activities. Greek teachers generally considered their national curriculum appropriate for all students, including Muslims. However, they suggested that the Ministry of Education should review curriculum implementation to grant teachers more autonomy in adapting and modifying pedagogy to accommodate diversity. Similarly, teachers in England expressed concerns about implementing the National Curriculum, advocating for greater flexibility to adjust activities and subject matter as situations arose. Despite these common anxieties, teachers from the two countries held differing views on curriculum implementation, potentially due to variations in curriculum requirements (e.g., different activities taught) or the presence of single-sex classes in England versus mixed-sex PE classes in Greece.

Novice Knowledge and Experience-Based Learning

Almost all teachers admitted that their knowledge base as newly qualified teachers was insufficient for effectively teaching students from diverse cultural backgrounds. An experienced female teacher from Greece recalled:

Only two Greek teachers, both experienced, expressed confidence in teaching culturally diverse classes, attributing this confidence to their many years of practical experience. These teachers provided examples of their understanding of Muslim culture, such as allowing girls to wear leggings or implementing flexible plans that included less strenuous activities during religious festivals, along with permission for non-participation. All teachers indicated some level of awareness of Islamic religion and culture, typically acquired either from living for many years in areas with high Muslim populations or from previous experience teaching culturally diverse classes. A male Greek teacher mentioned:

Greek teachers stated that they now base their teaching on their accumulated experience with culturally diverse classes and had sought advice from colleagues in the past. One teacher remarked:

All Greek school teachers agreed that pre-service or in-service education on multicultural issues would have better prepared them and prevented early career difficulties.

English Teachers' Experience and Training Deficiencies

The situation in England was slightly different. Only two English teachers (one female, one male) demonstrated awareness of specific aspects of Muslim religion and culture. For example, an experienced male teacher from the UK noted:

The remaining English teachers conceded that their first direct contact with Muslim culture occurred when they began working in their current schools, which had high percentages of Muslim students. A novice female teacher from the UK stated:

Consistent across both novice and experienced teachers in England was the belief that their initial teacher training did not adequately prepare them for teaching culturally diverse classes. An English male novice teacher articulated this sentiment:

English teachers acknowledged the importance of student teachers being educated in culturally diverse teaching practices and urged higher education institutions to place greater emphasis on this area. They also suggested that more systematic in-service training would enhance their ability to teach diverse student populations effectively.

Equality, Allowances, and Non-Participation

All teachers asserted that they maintained equality of treatment for all students regardless of culture or religion. However, they frequently granted Muslim students permission not to participate in lessons, particularly during periods of religious observance leading up to the festival of 'Eid', a practice more pronounced in England. Teachers justified these allowances by explaining their understanding of the situation. An experienced female teacher from the UK explained:

Teachers emphasized that these allowances were not indicative of 'special treatment' but were deemed necessary for smooth classroom operation:

When exploring non-participation further, English teachers generally did not permit students to leave the class. Instead, they would utilize these students to assist with teaching-related tasks, such as organizing equipment or setting up spaces:

Language Barriers

Beyond religious observance, teachers identified language as another significant challenge when teaching students from diverse cultural backgrounds. This was especially problematic for students with English as a second language or those who had recently immigrated to the UK. An experienced female teacher from the UK stated:

The most commonly adopted strategy to tackle this issue was demonstration during teaching. Teachers found that demonstrating activities ensured that all students, including those with language difficulties, better understood expectations and performed more confidently. An experienced male teacher from the UK highlighted:

Discussion

The strategies employed by the teachers in this study when engaging with Muslim students in their classes primarily encompassed: permitting non-participation, redirecting students to organizational or 'teacher support tasks,' and modifying lessons to include less strenuous activities, particularly during periods of religious observance. The teachers' decisions to adapt their teaching and their understanding of Muslim students' needs and culture largely stemmed from their own practical experiences in culturally diverse classrooms or knowledge acquired due to their place of residence. The Greek teachers specifically attributed their understanding of Muslim culture and religion to having lived most of their lives within a multicultural society with a significant Muslim presence. This aligns with findings from Sparks et al. (1996), which suggest that area of residence influences the frequency of multicultural 'engagement,' and that teachers living in multicultural environments often gain more profound multicultural experiences that enable them to adapt lesson practices to cater—from their perspective—to Muslim students' needs. The teachers in this study reaffirmed several factors crucial for initiating positive change, as highlighted by Smith et al. (1997, cited in Garmon, 2004, p. 2002), particularly exposure to different cultural backgrounds, which was very evident among the Greek teachers.

Significantly, both groups of teachers confessed that their initial teacher training courses and subsequent in-service education were inadequate in preparing them to teach culturally diverse classes effectively. The teachers felt that a greater emphasis on their own multicultural education would have deepened their cultural understanding and equipped them to respond more effectively to issues of diversity (Sparks et al., 1996; Brown, 2004). Manross and Templeton (1997) propose that novice teachers often seek guidance from expert teachers in areas such as subject matter instruction, pedagogy, and student needs. Numerous scholars (Sparks & Wayman, 1993; Banks, 1994, 1987; Sparks et al., 1996; Torrey & Ashy, 1997) have reported that teachers frequently encounter difficulties during their initial years of teaching due to a lack of knowledge in catering to culturally diverse classes. They suggest that positive attitudes towards different cultures and an understanding of them are typically cultivated through teachers' personal experiences and interactions with minority groups, rather than through pre-service education. This pattern was evident in the study, with PE teachers confirming that addressing cultural diversity in their classes was challenging during their early teaching years. They indicated that assistance from experienced teachers helped them overcome problems related to perceived religious and cultural barriers to student participation.

Regarding the needs of Muslim students, both groups of teachers identified several important issues for teaching culturally diverse classes. Aside from the periods of religious observance, language and communication problems were recognized as an additional challenge. The most common approach to address this was detailed demonstration coupled with additional explanation for each activity taught. In a similar vein, Torrey and Ashy (1997) recommend that for culturally responsive teaching, a PE teacher should foster communication among peers in their native language and model positive attitudes by correctly pronouncing names. The data revealed that while Greek teachers generally maintained that religion and culture did not significantly affect Muslim students' participation in PE, they acknowledged that periods of religious observance (e.g., during the festival of Ramadan) did pose an issue, with students requesting permission not to participate. Greek teachers indicated that they sought to understand students' needs and avoided penalizing them by formally recording absences. They also speculated that few students asked for non-participation because they had developed coping mechanisms for managing fasting while engaging in PE. In England, the situation differed, with a higher number of students requesting exclusion from lessons during religious observance periods. By allowing students not to participate, teachers, in effect, unintentionally excluded them despite their efforts to be 'culturally responsive.' Nevertheless, allowances were made in both countries, with teachers often ensuring student engagement by deploying them as assistants during the lesson. These findings corroborate the work of Carroll and Hollinshead (1993), who observed that teachers made allowances for Muslim students in PE during Ramadan, including permitting flexible PE attire and less strenuous activities.

All teachers consistently held positive attitudes towards treating all students equally, irrespective of their religion and gender. They strongly believed that each student deserved respect and should be treated as an individual with their own unique personality. Although teachers appeared sensitive to the different cultures present in their classrooms, they lacked explicit policies for cultural pluralism. The modifications and allowances they implemented, while demonstrating an awareness of their students' culture and religion, did not necessarily equate to promoting equal opportunities for all students. This observation aligns with Carroll and Hollinshead (1993), who found that teachers often perceived their modifications to accommodate students' religion and culture as operating a policy of equal opportunities. Teachers genuinely believed they were being fair to all their students. Sparks et al. (1996) previously reported that teachers generally exhibit positive attitudes towards multiculturalism, even if they do not have specific plans for integrating multicultural content within physical education programs. This study also found no significant gender differences in teachers' practices, with both male and female teachers in both countries expressing similar anxieties and encountering similar problems when teaching culturally diverse classes.

Conclusions and Implications

As previously noted, the primary purpose of comparative studies is to gain a deeper understanding of lived experiences and social realities within diverse national contexts (Hantrais, 1996). This present study offers valuable insights into the experiences of PE teachers operating in different national contexts, potentially contributing to an enhanced understanding of the complex interplay of ethnicity, culture, and religion and their profound impact on students' educational experiences. The paper has focused on the 'micro' experiences of PE teachers working with culturally diverse classes, while acknowledging that these experiences are case-specific and occurred in two countries characterized by distinct politico-ideological, sociocultural, and economic values, as well as differing educational system approaches.

However, a clear commonality emerged: all teachers admitted that their PE Initial Teacher Training (ITT) courses inadequately prepared them to respond effectively to the challenges of culturally diverse classes. This inadequacy was, admittedly, more pronounced in England than in Greece. The reasons for this disparity may lie in the historical context; the Muslim ethnic minority group in Greece has been established in specific regions for hundreds of years, whereas the Asian Muslim group in the UK is a relatively more recent demographic. Dagkas and Benn (2006) propose that maintaining a distinctive religious and cultural identity holds greater importance in more recently established ethnic communities.

Research of this nature, which prominently discusses issues of multiculturalism, is not without its critics (Troyna, 1994). However, the intention here was not to reinforce an 'ethnocentric conception of the other and sanction the sense of oddness' (Troyna, 1994, p. 334), but rather to provide empirical evidence of teachers' practices in an educational domain where ethnic minority teachers are significantly under-represented. The aim was to highlight that PE teachers, who are overwhelmingly white, possess very little direct intercultural experience, a finding consistently indicated by existing research (Zeichner, 1996; Garmon, 2004; Ambe, 2006). The core objective was to demonstrate the pressing need for student teachers to acquire greater multicultural experiences through PE ITT programs, thereby deepening their appreciation of diversity issues (Ambe, 2006).

As societies become increasingly diverse, there is a recognized demand for educational experiences that reflect this reality, and much educational research has focused on effective teaching strategies in culturally diverse schools. Consequently, teacher educators have designed and implemented various programs to meet the evolving social and cultural changes in modern societies (Sparks et al., 1996). However, this study suggests that current PE ITT programs may not have effectively equipped student teachers with the necessary knowledge base and pedagogical skills to adopt and implement practices relevant to the unique needs of students from ethnic minority groups.

This study adds its voice to the call for PE ITT programs to undergo a 'holistic transformation' (Ambe, 2006, p. 697) to genuinely reflect multicultural awareness and a deep appreciation of cultural diversity issues, particularly in programs specializing in PE teacher training. The findings of the present research underscore the need for further investigation into student teachers' perspectives on multiculturalism and how best to address cultural diversity in PE classes. There is likely a significant need to review and refocus the integration of cultural diversity matters within PE ITT programs to enhance awareness of multicultural issues. Furthermore, it is imperative to attract more individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds into the teaching profession, especially in PE, due to the tensions that can sometimes arise from mismatches between subject provision and what is culturally acceptable for Muslim students. However, to successfully attract a more culturally diverse teaching workforce, the challenges posed by current systems and structures in higher education teacher training must be recognized. These systems often fail to acknowledge and accommodate the specific needs of Muslim student teachers, thereby creating barriers to entering the profession and perpetuating a cycle of exclusion (Benn & Dagkas, 2006).