Biomedical Science Exam Study Notes

Anatomical Terminology and Body Organization

Anatomical Position, Planes, and Directional Terms

  • ANP-A.5: Understanding anatomical position, planes, directional terms, body cavities, and abdominal quadrants.
  • 1.1.2: Identify locations using anatomical terminology; recognize and communicate body planes, cavities, directional, and regional terms.
  • Anatomical Position: Body erect, arms at sides, palms forward.
  • Directional Terms:
    • Anterior (Ventral): Front.
    • Posterior (Dorsal): Back.
    • Superior: Higher.
    • Inferior: Lower.
    • Medial: Toward the midline.
    • Lateral: Away from the midline.
    • Distal: Away from the point of origin (extremities).
    • Proximal: Nearest to the point of origin (extremities).
    • Superficial: On the surface.
    • Deep: Away from the surface.
  • Regional Terms: Describe specific body regions.
    • Axial: Head, neck, trunk.
    • Appendicular: Limbs.
    • Abdominal: Abdomen.
    • Antecubital: Inner forearm.
    • Axillary: Armpit.
    • Brachial: Arm.
    • Buccal: Mouth.
    • Calcaneal: Heel.
    • Carpal: Wrist.
    • Cephalic: Head.
    • Cervical: Neck.
    • Coxal: Hip.
    • Digital: Fingers/toes.
    • Femoral: Thigh.
    • Gluteal: Buttocks.
    • Inguinal: Groin.
    • Lumbar: Lower back.
    • Nasal: Nose.
    • Occipital: Back of head.
    • Olecranal: Elbow.
    • Oral: Mouth.
    • Orbital: Eye socket.
    • Patellar: Anterior knee.
    • Pelvic: Pelvis.
    • Popliteal: Behind knee.
    • Sacral: Sacrum.
    • Scapular: Shoulder blade.
    • Sternal: Sternum.
    • Tarsal: Ankle.
    • Thoracic: Chest.
    • Umbilical: Navel.
    • Vertebral: Vertebrae.
  • Body Planes: Imaginary surfaces dividing the body.
    • Coronal: Anterior and posterior portions.
    • Sagittal: Unequal right and left portions.
    • Transverse: Superior and inferior portions.
    • Median (Midsagittal): Equal right and left portions.
  • Body Cavities: Spaces containing internal organs.
    • Cranial: Skull; contains the brain.
    • Dorsal: Cranial and spinal cavities.
    • Pelvic: Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and large intestine.
    • Ventral: Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
    • Thoracic: Esophagus, trachea, lungs, heart.
      • Pleural: Lungs.
      • Mediastinum: Heart, aorta, trachea, esophagus, thymus.
    • Vertebral: Spinal cord.
    • Abdominal: Stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, gallbladder, pancreas, kidneys.
    • Abdominopelvic: Abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Tissues, Organs, and Systems

  • ANP-B.4: Describe the structure and function of the four types of human tissues.
  • 1.1.3: Describe the relationships between cells, tissues, organs, and systems; use a microscope to examine tissue samples.
  • Hierarchy of Organization:
    • Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems
  • Four Types of Tissues:
    • Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; specialized cells (neurons) receive, interpret, and respond to signals.
    • Epithelial: Sheets of cells lining organs and surfaces; functions include absorption, secretion, protection, and sensing.
      • Examples: Skin, respiratory tract lining.
    • Muscle: Striated (skeletal), smooth, or cardiac; facilitates movement.
    • Connective: Supports and connects tissues; holds organs, attaches muscles to bones, links bones, and enables tissue stretching.
      • Example: Adipose tissue (fat).

Bones and Bone Features

  • ANP-C.2: Locate and identify individual bones and bone features.
  • 1.1.5: Use proper medical terminology to locate and identify bones and bone features.
  • Skull Bones (22):
    • Frontal (1), Parietal (2), Temporal (2), Occipital (1), Sphenoid (1), Ethmoid (1), Nasal Conchae (2), Nasal (2), Maxilla (2), Palatine (2), Lacrimal (2), Zygomatic (2), Mandible (1), Vomer (1).
  • Bone Classification by Shape:
    • Flat: Spongy bone between compact bone layers; marrow but no marrow cavity.
      • Examples: Frontal, parietal, occipital, nasal, lacrimal, vomer, sternum, scapula, ribs.
    • Long: Shaft and two ends; longer than wide; thick outside layer with marrow cavity; spongy bone at the ends.
      • Examples: Humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges.
      • Epiphysis: Ends, hyaline cartilage for articulation, cancellous bone.
      • Diaphysis: Shaft, periosteum, medullary canal with marrow, compact bone.
    • Irregular: Thin spongy bone layers surrounded by compact bone; doesn't fit other categories.
      • Examples: vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, zygomatic, maxilla, mandible, palatine, inferior nasal concha, hyoid.
    • Short: Cube-shaped, spongy bone with thin compact bone layer.
      • Examples: Carpals, tarsals.
  • Bone Marrow: Soft tissue in the center of bones.
    • Yellow Marrow: Fat storage in the medullary cavity of long bones.
    • Red Marrow: Hematopoietic tissue producing red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets; cancellous bone in children; cancellous bone of vertebrae, hips, sternum, ribs, cranial bones, femur, and humerus in adults.
  • Bone Composition: Collagen, inorganic calcium salts, Vitamin D.
    • Deposition favored by estrogen/testosterone, alkaline phosphatase, thyrocalcitonin, and mechanical stress.
    • Weakening favored by parathormone and inactivity.
  • Bone Cells: Functions include:
    • Osteoblasts: Bone building.
    • Osteocytes: Mature bone cells.
    • Osteoclasts: Bone resorption.
  • Bone Growth: Length at epiphyseal line, width by surface addition.
    • Controlled by Human Growth Hormone (HGH).
    • HGH Deficiency: Dwarfism.
    • HGH Excess: Gigantism.
    • HGH Excess Post-Puberty: Acromegaly.

Muscle Tissue

  • ANP-D.1: Compare and contrast the structural and functional similarities and differences between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
  • 1.2.1: Describe the structure and function of the three types of muscle tissue.
  • Types of Muscle Tissue:
    • Skeletal: Striated, voluntary; attaches to bones for movement.
    • Cardiac: Striated, involuntary; forms the heart walls for blood circulation.
    • Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary; in the walls of internal organs.
  • Skeletal Muscle Properties: Excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity, automaticity.
  • Skeletal Muscle Functions: Movement, posture maintenance, joint stabilization, heat generation, and internal organ protection.
  • Muscle Attachments: Tendons, fascia, aponeurosis, or raphe.

Joints

  • ANP-C.3: Describe the structure of the major types of joints and how these influence mobility and stability.
  • 1.2.5: Identify the various types of synovial joints and the movements they allow for.
  • Types of Joints:
    • Fibrous: Fixed / immovable.
    • Cartilaginous: Some motion / hyaline cartilage.
    • Synovial: Moveable, synovial fluid.
  • Movements at Joints:
    • Rotation, Circumduction
    • Abduction, Adduction
    • Depression, Elevation
    • Flexion, Extension (and hyperextension)
    • Plantar flexion, Dorsiflexion
  • Cartilage Types:
    • Articular (Hyaline): Cushions the ends of bones/ allows easy bending/straightening motions and protects the joint against weight-bearing stresses.
    • Elastic: Ear, epiglottis, upper respiratory tract.
    • Fibrocartilage: Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis.
  • Range of Motion (ROM): Assessment of joint motion.
  • Measurement: Goniometer.
  • Medical terminology for healthcare jobs:
    • Home Health Aide: Provides healthcare to patients in their homes by helping to cook, feed, dress, and bathe patients and sometimes provides medication.
    • Phlebotomist: Draws blood for tranfusions, blood donations, or medical tests, per doctors orders.
    • Medical Equipment Technician: Maintains medical equipment and ensures regular upkeep is done.
    • Medical Transcriptionist: Translates medical records from voice records to written reports.
    • Dental Assistant: prepares patients and essential tools for dental procedures and may also clean tools.
    • Sonographer: Obtains medical images to assist doctors in diagnosing patients.
    • Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) and Paramedic: Responds to emergencies and provides care based on the patients presenting symptoms.
    • Medical Billing and Coding Specialist: A point of contact between doctors and insurance providers that is responsible for coding and tracking services correctly.
    • Pharmacy Aide: Prepares and dispenses prescriptions and works with pharmacists and patients.

Nervous System

  • ANP-G.1: Investigate structural and functional components of the nervous system.
  • 2.1.1: Identify structures and functions of the nervous system.
  • Divisions of the Nervous System:
    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS.
  • Brain Structures:
    • Cerebrum: Divided into lobes.
    • Cerebellum
    • Brainstem
  • Neurons: Primary signaling cells.
    • Cell Body (Soma).
    • Axon
    • Dendrites
  • Glial Cells: Support and maintain neuron environment.
  • Neuropharmacology - the study of the action of drugs on the nervous system including medicines and illegal drugs.

Action Potentials and Synaptic Transmission

  • ANP-G.3: Identify and model action potentials, ions, channel proteins, and synaptic connection.
  • 2.1.3: Demonstrate how action potentials are generated and how impulses travel along a neuron; explain neuronal communication at a synapse.
  • Action Potential Generation: Electrical signal traveling down an axon.
  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers carrying signals between neurons.
  • How an action potential arises and propagates down an axon:
    • nerve cell can generate and send an electrical signal called an action potential.
    • This signal travels down the long axon of a neuron and passes its message to the next neuron down the line.
  • The Sodium-Potassium Pump restores the neuron’s resting potential, which “resets” the neuron at the end of an action potential so it is ready to fire again.
  • To review key structures involved in sending signals from neuron to neuron, explore the Neurotransmitter Activity model.
  • Substance use disorder, also known as drug addiction, is a disease that affects a person’s brain and behavior and leads to an inability to control the use of a drug or medication.
  • synapses - where neurons communicate

Pharmacology

  • ANP-B.5: Explain how pharmacological mechanisms affect the body.
  • 2.1.5: Describe mechanisms of action of different classes of drugs.
  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, adrenaline).
  • Agonist - A substance which initiates a physiological response when combined with a receptor.
  • Antagonist - A substance that interferes with or inhibits the physiological action of another.
  • Inverse Agonist - A drug that binds to the same receptor as an agonist but induces a pharmacological response opposite to that of the agonist
  • Reuptake inhibitor - A drug or substance that binds to a receptor and inhibits or blocks the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter, especially in the synapse.

Endocrine System

  • ANP-J.1: Investigate the structure and function of the endocrine system.
  • 2.2.1: Describe the basic mechanism of hormone action in the human body.
  • Hormones: Chemical signals regulating body functions (energy, growth, mood, sleep).
  • Glands: Structures secreting hormones.
    • Exocrine: Secrete substances through ducts (e.g., sweat glands).
    • Endocrine: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
  • Hormone Classifications
    • Adrenaline, dopamine, oxytocin, serotonin, and vasopressin are all examples of neurotransmitters that also serve as hormones.
  • Endocrine disruptors are substances that interfere with hormones and the endocrine system.
  • Mining literature related to a particular topic is a skill you will continue to practice as you grow professionally.

Scientific Research

  • EXD-A.2: Distinguish between independent and dependent variables.
  • 2.3.1: Conduct background research using credible sources to identify and investigate a relevant research question; make a prediction and identify the independent and dependent variables.
  • Abstract - summarizes the important points of the paper.
  • Introduction - provides the background information to understand why the described experiment was conducted.
  • Methods - describes all experimental procedures, including the controls, in enough detail to enable someone else to repeat the work.
  • Results - summarizes general trends in the data without comment, bias, or interpretation and typically includes figures and tables as an efficient way to convey information.
  • Discussion (or Conclusion) - evaluates the meaning of the results in terms of the original question or hypothesis and relates the results to other studies.
  • Reference - lists in alphabetical order, the sources used in the paper. References should be the full reference so that a reader can find the original.