1A-1B notes

Sound Card Components

  • A sound card is an expansion card or integrated motherboard component that manages sound input and output.

  • Sound cards convert analog sound into digital data and vice versa.

  • Key components:

    • Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts analog sound to digital data.

    • Digital Signal Processor (DSP): Onboard processor for analog and digital conversion.

    • Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC): Converts digital data to analog sound for speakers.

Bus Support

  • Sound cards can be installed via expansion slots (PCI, PCIe x1) on the motherboard.

  • Ensure bus type compatibility when selecting a sound card.

  • Most new motherboards have onboard sound cards.

Channels

  • Audio can be split into multiple channels to enhance sound quality and realism.

  • Standard channel configurations:

    • 2 channel audio: Stereo (standard TV, radio).

    • 4 channel audio: Quadraphonic (early surround sound).

    • 5.1 channel audio: Surround sound with 6 channels (5 speakers, 1 LFE subwoofer).

    • 7.1 channel audio: 8 channels (7 speakers, 1 LFE subwoofer).

Sampling Rate

  • Sampling rate is the number of analog signal samples taken over time, measured in hertz (Hz) or kilohertz (kHz).

  • Higher sampling rates provide more accurate sound representation.

  • Examples of sampling rates:

    • 8 kHz: Telephone (adequate for voice, human voice range is about 4 kHz).

    • 22 kHz: Radio quality.

    • 44 kHz: CD quality (reproduces audio frequencies up to 20,500 Hz, covering full human hearing range).

    • 48 kHz: Digital TV, DVD movies.

    • 96 kHz: DVD audio.

    • 192 kHz: LPCM (DVD-music production), BD-ROM (Blu-ray).

  • Higher sample rates require more data bits per sample

    • 8-bit: 256 sampling size

    • 16-bit: 65,536 sampling size

    • 20-bit: 1,048,576 sampling size

    • 24-bit: 16,777,216 sampling size

    • 32-bit: 4,294,967,296 sampling size

Feature Support

  • DirectSound 3D: Allows computers to play audio in surround sound.

  • EAX: High-definition sound technology for video games, providing realistic audio cues.

  • THX: Sound quality standard for film, now available on sound cards, delivering theater-quality sound.

  • Dolby Digital: Technology to broadcasts sound at a frequency the human ear can hear and diminishes collateral sound.

  • DTS (Digital Theater Systems): Requires an optical reader to decode physical data and send it to a computer for processing.

  • SDDS (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound): Developed for theater sound, includes error correction.

  • MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface): Protocol for recording and playing audio created on digital synthesizers, integrating computers with musical instruments.

Analog Input and Output

  • Analog output jacks allow playing sound through external devices.

    • Speaker out: Sends amplified signal to external speakers; computer controls sound level.

    • Line out: Sends unamplified audio to other sound devices.

  • Analog input jacks allow recording audio through the sound card.

    • Line-level (line-in): Receives signals from CD players and musical instruments.

    • Mic-level (mic in): Receives signals from a microphone.

Digital Audio

  • Digital audio support in sound cards:

    • Enables playing digital audio directly from an internal CD player.

    • Allows audio data compression for Dolby Digital or DTS surround sound.

    • Supports fiber optic cables to eliminate electrical interference.

  • Connectivity:

    • Internal connector on the sound card connects to a digital audio output on a CD/DVD drive.

    • Internal connector sends HD audio (DVD/Blu-ray) to a video card for HDMI combination.

S/PDIF

  • Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format (S/PDIF): Consumer standard for digital audio.

  • Optical or coaxial external connectors for input/output with digital audio devices.

Additional Ports

  • MIDI port: Interfaces with MIDI sound devices.

  • FireWire: Some high-end audio cards include.

  • HDMI: Some high-end audio cards include HDMI video processors and video output, combining audio and video card features.

File Types

  • Sound card drivers save digital audio in various file types:

    • WAV: Windows standard, widely compatible.

    • AIFF: Audio Interchange File Format, Macintosh equivalent of WAV.

    • AU: UNIX standard, supported by web browsers.

    • MP3 (MPEG-2 Layer III): Highly effective audio compression standard.

    • AAC (Advanced Audio Coding, MPEG-2): Compression format expected to replace MP3.

    • WMA (Windows Media Audio): Developed to compete with Real Audio.

    • MIDI: Not a true audio file, contains data to reproduce sounds via electronic synthesis.

Video Card Installation

  • Verify video card compatibility with the motherboard's expansion slots.

  • Disable integrated graphics in CMOS if installing a dedicated video card.

  • Install the video card in the first open expansion slot.

  • For multi-GPU configurations (SLI/CrossFire):

    • Install the secondary video card in the next open slot.

    • Link cards with a bridge clip.

    • Connect additional power connectors (6-pin, 8-pin, or 12-pin).

    • Some motherboards need additional power connectors near the expansion slots.

  • Connect the external display to the video card using the appropriate cable.

  • For multi-GPU, connect the monitor to the primary video card.

  • Complete all connections before turning on the computer.

  • Install video card drivers and configuration software.

Integrated vs. Dedicated Video Cards

  • Integrated Video Cards:

    • Integrate the GPU with other components (CPU, motherboard).

    • Share system memory.

    • Less expensive and less powerful.

    • Common in pre-built PCs and laptops; also used in servers.

  • Dedicated Video Cards:

    • Installed in an expansion slot.

    • Have a dedicated GPU and high-speed video memory.

    • More powerful and more expensive.

    • Used in cryptocurrency mining.

    • Allow multiple cards to be linked (daisy chaining).

Characteristics of Video Cards

  • Display Connectors:

    • Select a video card with connectors matching the display.

    • Common connectors: HDMI, DisplayPort, USB-C, VirtualLink USB-C (for VR).

    • DVI is rarely used with new monitors.

    • Dual heads support dual monitors; some cards support 3-6 monitors.

    • Use special cables if necessary (USB-C to HDMI, DisplayPort to HDMI, Mini-DisplayPort to HDMI).

  • Display Quality:

    • Determined by both the video card and display.

    • Resolution: Number of pixels displayed (e.g., 1920×10801920 \times 1080, 4096×21604096 \times 2160, 2560×14402560 \times 1440, 5120×28805120 \times 2880).

    • Refresh rate: Number of times the GPU draws a frame per second, measured in hertz (Hz). Optimal rate is between 75-85 Hz; some monitors have rates of 120, 144, or 240 Hz.

    • Lower refresh rates (e.g. 70 Hz or lower) may cause eye fatigue.

  • Processing Capabilities:

    • GPU handles video rendering tasks efficiently.

    • Video hardware acceleration utilizes the GPU to render graphics.

  • Multi-GPUs:

    • Link video cards to share the graphic processing load.

    • NVIDIA uses SLI (Scalable Link Interface).

    • AMD uses CrossFire.

    • Linked via bridge clip or software.

  • Clock Speed:

    • GPU clock speed is rated in MHz.

    • Higher speed means better performance.

    • Overclocking increases processing speeds but can shorten card life due to increased heat.

  • Memory:

    • Dedicated video cards use high-speed memory (1-24 GB).

    • Types: DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5 (similar to system memory, cheaper but fewer performance features).

    • GDDR2, GDDR3, GDDR5, GDDR5X, GDDR6, and GDDR6X (specifically designed for graphics, more expensive, greater performance).

  • Bus Type:

    • Compatibility with motherboard expansion slots is essential.

    • PCIe x16 is the most widely used.

    • PCI is a parallel connection, while PCIe is a high-speed serial connection.

    • AGP is rarely found and outdated.

Multi-GPU Requirements

  • Motherboard and each video card must use the same connection method (SLI or CrossFire).

  • Motherboard must have multiple PCIe x16 slots.

  • In most cases, both video cards should be identical.

HDMI Audio

  • HDMI cables can carry both video and audio signals.

    • Audio pass-through: Connects audio output cable to the video card to combine audio and video signals for HDMI output (HDTV out).

    • Onboard audio processor: Graphics card decodes and processes audio for HDMI output (onboard sound).

DirectX/OpenGL

  • DirectX: Collection of APIs improving graphics, animation, and multimedia.

    • Direct3D is the 3D rendering component.

    • Video card must support the DirectX version used by applications.

  • OpenGL: Alternative standard to DirectX.

  • Most video cards support both DirectX and OpenGL.

HDCP

  • High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP): Prevents interception and copying of protected data streams.

  • DVD player, video card, and display must support HDCP to play protected content.

Capture Cards

  • Used with a computer to capture on-screen content for livestreaming or high-quality video files.

  • Commonly used by video gamers and live streamers.

  • Items needed:

    • Primary device (console, computer, camera).

    • Capture card with appropriate connection port.

    • Additional HDMI cable.

    • High-definition TV or monitor.

    • Encoding computer.

    • Capture card software.

  • Connection Types

    • USB

    • PCIe

    • USB-C

    • Thunderbolt

Common Adapters

  • Adapters convert connector types.

  • Common adapters:

    • HDMI to DVI: Connects an HDMI cable to a DVI port.

    • VGA to DVI: Connects a VGA cable to a DVI port.

    • VGA to HDMI: Connects a VGA cable to an HDMI port.

    • DVI to Thunderbolt: Connects a DVI cable to a Thunderbolt port.

    • Ethernet to USB: Connects an RJ45 connector to a USB port.

  • Ensure adapter connection type and end match the devices being connected.

Internal Hard Drive Connections

  • Cables and connectors for internal hard drives:

    • SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment):

      • Modern computers, connects hard drives to motherboard.

      • 7-pin data cable, 15-pin power cable.

      • Up to 1 meter long.

      • SATA3 can transfer up to 600 MB/s.

    • SCSI (Small Computer System Interface):

      • High-end servers, mainframe computers, RAID storage.

      • Limited BIOS support.

      • SCSI controller coordinates devices on the host bus adapter (HBA).

      • Internal parallel SCSI ribbon cables (50, 68, or 80 pins).

      • Can transfer up to 640 MBps.

    • SAS (Serial Attached SCSI):

      • Point-to-point serial protocol.

      • Enterprise-level storage (RAID, tape drives, servers).

      • Replaces parallel SCSI.

      • SAS-4 throughput up to 22.5 Gbps, full duplex.

    • IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics):

      • Also known as Parallel AT Attachment (PATA).

      • Older technology.

      • Ribbon cable with 40-pin connector.

      • Requires a separate Molex power cable.

      • Largely replaced by SATA.

    • Molex:

      • Common connector for powering internal components.

Common External Cables

  • External cables include:

    • eSATA (External SATA):

      • SATA connection in an external enclosure.

      • Hot-swappable.

      • Fast SATA throughput.

      • Requires separate power connection.

    • SCSI: *Connects other hardware hard drives, tape drives, CD-ROMS, scanners and printers.

      • Multiple devices can be daisy-chained.

      • Terminate the last device.

      • Different SCSI variations use different connectors usually with 50, 68, or 80 pins.

    • iSCSI (internet SCSI):

      • For enterprise-class storage over a TCP/IP network.

      • Fast, flexible (up to 400 MBps).

      • Needs initiator software.

      • Long-distance using existing network infrastructure.

    • SAS:

      • Uses SFF connectors.

      • Compatible with SATA drives.

      • SAS-4: throughput up to 22.5 Gbps, full duplex.

      • Hot-pluggable.

      • Expanders to daisy chain up to 65,535 devices.

      • Terminate the last device.

Modern Video Connections

  • DisplayPort (DP):

    • Royalty-free standard by VESA.

    • Common on PCs.

    • Carries multiple high-quality digital video and audio streams.

    • Resolutions up to 8194×43208194 \times 4320.

    • Cables up to 35 feet with 20-pin connectors and locking mechanism.

    • Has a Mini DisplayPort (MDP) version.

    • Compatible with HDMI, DVI, and most Mac devices.

  • HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface):

    • Forward compatible standard by the consumer electronics industry.

    • Compatible with LCD monitors and modern entertainment systems.

    • Transmits high-definition digital video and up to 8 audio channels.

    • Supports up to 25-foot cable before degradation.

    • Three types: Type A (standard on TVs, monitors, 4K screens), Type C (miniHDMI on video cameras), Type D (micro HDMI on smartphones).

Older Video Connections

  • DVI (Digital Visual Interface):

    • Carries analog and digital through the same white video cable.

    • DVI-A (analog), DVI-D (digital), DVI-I (integrated).

    • Single-link supports up to 1920×12001920 \times 1200 resolution.

    • Dual-link supports up to 2560×16002560 \times 1600 resolution.

    • Connectors may have up to 24 pins for digital signals, plus 4 pins for analog signals.

    • Optimal performance at 16 feet, good performance up to 30 feet.

    • Backward compatibility with VGA (analog).

  • VGA (Video Graphics Array):

    • Blue serial connector.

    • Connects external display devices (CRT monitors, projectors, LCD monitors).

    • Transmits an analog video signal (no digital option).

    • Lower-quality displays with 640×480640 \times 480 resolution.

    • Cables with 15 holes on one end and 15 pins on the other.

    • DB-15 connector in three rows.

Other Connections

  • Audio Jack:

    • Sends/receives analog audio signals.

    • 3. 5 mm TRS connectors.

    • Colors: Green (line out), Pink (mic in), Blue (line in), Orange (subwoofer), Black (rear speakers).

  • S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interface):

    • Sends digital audio to high-end audio devices.

    • Coaxial S/PDIF (copper coaxial cable).

    • Fiber S/PDIF (fiber optic cables).

  • S-Video (Mini Deutsches Institut für Normung-4 (miniDIN-4):

    • Connects external displays.

    • Slightly better picture quality than RCA video port.

Legacy Connection Ports

  • These ports have been replaced by newer technologies. They are still widely used, but are not as fast or efficient.

  • PS/2 (Personal System/2) (Mini-DIN-6):

    • Connects older PS/2 keyboard or mouse.

    • Color-coded: Purple (keyboard), Green (mouse).

    • Replaced by USB.

  • Serial (DB-9):

    • Connects serial devices (printer, barcode scanner, router, dial-up modem, serial mouse).

    • RS-232 standard for serial communication.

    • Replaced by USB for most peripheral interfaces.

  • RJ45:

    • Creates Ethernet networks.

    • Eight connector pins.

  • RJ11:

    • Telephones and modems.

    • Four connector pins.

  • DB-15:

    • Gaming port for legacy game pads, joysticks, and MIDI devices.

  • Parallel (DB-25):

    • Connects older devices with parallel interfaces (printers, hard drives, gamepads).

    • Replaced by USB and RJ45.

Apple Connections

  • Thunderbolt 3:

    • Developed by Intel and Apple.

    • Supplies power for external displays.

    • Combines PCIe and DisplayPort into two serial signals.

    • Up to 40 Gbps.

    • Daisy chain up to seven devices.

    • Thunderbolt 1 & 2 have a mini DisplayPort (MDP) connector.

  • Lightning:

    • Connects mobile devices (iPhones, iPads, iPods) to a host.

    • Small, symmetrical plug with 8 pins on either side.

Expansion Bus Types

  • Expansion cards increase a computer's functionality or performance.

  • Expansion bus standards define communication specifications and physical characteristics.

    • Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI):

      • Replaced ISA and VESA.

      • Processor independent (CPU and PCI bus can process concurrently).

      • Supports plug-and-play.

      • Commonly used by sound cards, modems, network cards, storage controllers.

      • 33 MHz, 133 MBps or 66 MHz, 266 MBps.

    • PCI Express (PCIe):

      • Replaced PCI, PCI-X, and AGP.

      • Point-to-point dedicated connection.

      • Serial, full-duplex transmission.

      • Types: x2, x4, x8, x16, x32.

      • Data rates depend on protocol version and lanes:

        • 1. 0: 250 MBps (x1), 4 GBps (x16)

        • 2. 0: 500 MBps (x1), 8 GBps (x16)

        • 3. 0: 1 GBps (x1), 16 GBps (x16)

        • 4. 0: 2 GBps (x1), 32 GBps (x16)

      • PCIe x1 for network, USB, and sound cards; PCIe x16 for video cards.

      • Cross-size compatible if slot is the same or larger than the card.

Legacy Buses

  • Buses replaced by newer types are considered legacy.

    • AGP: Dedicated bus for video cards.

    • AMR (Audio/modem riser): Riser card for additional cards.

    • CNR (Communications network riser): Riser card slot for network, sound, or modem functions.

USB Features

  • Cross-platform technology that most OS support.

  • Serial communication.

  • Plug-and-play configuration.

  • Hot swappable (Windows 98+).

  • Can supply power across the cable.

  • Up to 127 devices on a single bus.

USB Standards

  • USB-IF establishes industry standards for USB specifications and testing.
    *USB has evolved through four generations. All generations are backward and forward compatible.

  • USB 1.0

    • Year Introduced: 1996

    • Also Known As: Low Speed USB

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 1.5 Mbps

  • USB 1.1

    • Year Introduced: 1998

    • Also Known As: Full Speed USB

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 12 Mbps

  • USB 2.0

    • Year Introduced: 2000

    • Also Known As: Hi-speed USB

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 480 Mbps

  • USB 3.2 Gen 1

    • Year Introduced: 2008

    • Also Known As: USB 3.0, USB 3.1 Gen 1 SuperSpeed USB

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 5 Gbps

  • USB 3.2 Gen 2

    • Year Introduced: 2013

    • Also Known As: USB 3.1, USB 3.1 Gen 2 SuperSpeed+ SuperSpeed 10Gbps

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 10 Gbps

  • USB 3.2 Gen 2x2

    • Year Introduced: 2017

    • Also Known As: USB 3.2 SuperSpeed 20Gbps

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 20 Gbps

  • USB4

    • Year Introduced: 2019

    • Also Known As: USB4 Gen 2x2 USB4 20Gbps

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 20 Gbps

  • USB4

    • Year Introduced: 2019

    • Also Known As: USB4 Gen3x2 USB4 40Gbps

    • Maximum Data Transfer Speed: 40 Gbps

USB Cables

  • Transfer data and power.

  • USB specs define cable lengths for optimal data transfer.

  • Extend cable length with self-powered USB hubs or active repeater cables.

  • Data transfer rates are limited by cable quality.

USB Connectors

  • Plugs (male) and ports (female).

  • Connector type doesn't determine speed; standards like USB 2.0 do.

    • USB Type-A

      • Standard on almost all desktop PCs and older laptops.

      • Wired mice, keyboards, and USB memory sticks often use USB-A.

      • The blue tab indicates the connector is capable of USB 3.0 speeds.

    • USB Mini-B

      • Mini-USB is a small connector used on portable devices.

      • It was replaced by the Micro-USB.

      • This was popular for digital cameras and some cell phones.

    • USB Type-B

      • USB-B is the largest connector since it is designed to carry both data and power.

      • These are commonly used with a printer, scanner, external hard drive, or other large devices.

      • Networking devices such as hubs or modems also use it.

    • USB Micro-B (Micro-USB)

      • Micro-USB is even smaller than the mini and half the thickness.

      • These are widely used today on smartphones and tablets.

    • USB Type-C

      • The latest standard connector, designed to be smaller, thinner, and lighter for mobile devices.

      • The cable is reversible with the same connector on both ends to connect two devices with Type-C ports.

      • Can be inserted in the port either way so you never have to try again.

      • Designed to withstand 10,000 insertion and removal cycles.

USB Devices

  • Almost every device uses USB.

  • Connect to computers directly or through external USB hubs.

  • USB devices are classified by how they receive power:

    • Bus-Powered:

      • Get power from the USB cable.

      • Low-powered (100 mA or less), High-powered (100-500 mA, up to 900 mA for USB 3.0).

    • Self-Powered:

      • Rely on their own power supply.

      • USB 2.0 devices that draw more than 500 mA of power are required to be self-powered; USB 3.0 devices that draw more than 900 mA of power are required to be self-powered.

USB Hubs

  • Can be bus-powered or self-powered.

  • Connect only low-powered or self-powered devices to a bus-powered hub; high-powered devices are not supported.

  • Self-powered hubs (500 mA per port) are recommended.

  • Install software drivers before attaching a USB device.

Fiber Optic Cable Components

  • Central core (glass or plastic): carries signal.

  • Cladding: maintains the signal in the core.

  • Protective layer: stiff structure to protect core and cladding.

  • Plastic sheath: encases and protects the cable.

Fiber Optic Cable Comparison

  • Advantages:

    • Immune to EMI.

    • Highly resistant to eavesdropping.

    • Fastest transmission rates available.

    • Greater cable distances without a repeater

  • Disadvantages:

    • Very expensive.

    • Difficult to work with.

    • Special training required to attach connectors to cables.

Fiber Optic Cable Modes

  • Single-mode:

    • Transfers data through the core using a single ray.

    • Core diameter around 10 microns.

    • Supports large amounts of data.

    • Allows cable lengths to extend a great distance.

  • Multi-mode:

    • Transfers data through the core using multiple rays.

    • Core diameter around 50 to 100 microns.

    • Limits the distance of cable lengths.

Fiber Optic Cable Connectors

  • Require two strands: one for transmitting, one for receiving.

    • ST Connector:

      • Used with single mode and multi-mode cabling.

      • Keyed, bayonet-type (push in and twist) connector.

    • SC Connector:

      • Used with single-mode and multi-mode cabling.

      • Push on, pull off connector with a locking tab.

    • LC Connector:

      • Used with single-mode and multi-mode cabling.

      • Plastic connector with a locking tab.

      • Half the size of other fiber optic connectors.

    • MT-RJ Connector:

      • Used with single mode and multi-mode cabling.

      • Plastic connector with a locking tab.

      • Metal guide pins for alignment.

Twisted Pair Cable Connectors

  • RJ11:

    • 4 or 6 connectors.

    • RJ-11 wiring standard (up to 2 pairs of wires).

    • Locking tab.

    • Telephone wiring.

  • RJ45:

    • 8 connectors.

    • Supports up to 4 pairs of wires.

    • Locking tab.

    • Ethernet networks.

Twisted Pair Cable Wiring

  • Patch Cables:

    • Connect computers to a network through a hub or switch.

    • Same wire configuration on each end.

      • T568A: GW, G, OW, B, BW, O, BrW, Br.

      • T568B: OW, O, GW, B, BW, G, BrW, Br.

    • Use the same standard for all cables.

  • Crossover Cables:

    • Connect computers directly to each other.

    • T568A on one end, T568B on the other.

Ethernet Pin Specifications

  • Pin assignments for Ethernet communication:

    • Cat 5 Ethernet (100BASE-T) and below:

      • Pin 1: Tx+

      • Pin 2: Tx-

      • Pin 3: Rx+

      • Pin 6: Rx-

    • Cat 5e (1000BASE-T) and above:

      • Pin 1: Bi+ D0

      • Pin 2: Bi- D0

      • Pin 3: Bi+ D1

      • Pin 4: Bi+ D2

      • Pin 5: Bi- D2

      • Pin 6: Bi- D1

      • Pin 7: Bi+ D3

      • Pin 8: Bi- D3

Cables Tips for Twisted Pair Cables

  • Use a crimping tool for RJ45 connectors.

  • Use the appropriate punch-down tool for punch-down blocks.

  • Use the correct connector type (solid or stranded core wires).

  • Keep pairs twisted up to the connector to reduce crosstalk.

  • Making Cat 6 compliant cables is difficult; consider buying pre-made cables.

Twisted Pair Cable Components

  • Four pairs of copper wires (positive and negative signals).

  • Wires are twisted to reduce EMI and crosstalk.

  • PVC insulation around each wire.

  • Outer plastic sheath to bundle and protect wires.

    • Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Only an outer sheath; easier to work with and less expensive.

    • Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Grounded copper shield around wire bundle or each pair; additional EMI protection, but more expensive.

Comparison of Twisted Pair Cable

  • Advantages:

    • Inexpensive.

    • Easy to install, flexible, and lightweight.

    • Common media with easily obtained tools.

    • Most supported network medium.

  • Disadvantages:

    • Susceptible to interference.

    • Vulnerable to cable damage and eavesdropping.

    • Lower bandwidth.

Twisted Pair Cable Categories

  • T568A and T568B are two major wiring standards used in the networking industry

  • Higher numbered categories have faster transmission speeds

    • Cat 3: RJ11, 10 Mbps

      • Used to connect a modem to a phone jack in a wall outlet to establish a dial-up internet connection

      • Has two pairs of cable (a total of 4 wires)

    • Cat 5: RJ45, 100 Mbps, 100 MHz

      • Supports up to 100 Mbps Ethernet

    • Cat 5e: RJ45, 1000 Mbps, 100 MHz

      • Is similar to Cat 5 but provides better EMI protection

      • Supports gigabit Ethernet (gigabit connections require the use of all four twisted pairs)

    • Cat 6: RJ45, 10 Gbps, 250 MHz

      • Limits 10 Gbps speeds to cable lengths less than 55 meters

    • Cat 6a: RJ45, 10 Gbps, 500 MHz

      • Limits 10 Gbps speeds to cable lengths less than 100 meters

      • Provides additional shielding and tighter cable twists than standard Cat 6, which reduces (alien) crosstalk and makes it less susceptible to EMI

    • Cat 7: RJ45, 10 Gbps, 600 MHz

      • Has the strictest specifications for crosstalk and noise

      • In shielded only

    • Cat 7a: RJ45, 10 Gbps, 1000 MHz

      • Offers exceptional noise immunity in addition to the strictest specifications for crosstalk and noise

      • In shielded only

    • Cat 8.1: Class I: RJ45 Class II: non- RJ45, 25 Gbps, 2000 MHz

      • Rated for data transfers 250 times faster than Cat5

      • Is not compatible with Cat5e and Cat6 cables due to different connectors

      • In shielded only

    • Cat 8.2: Class I: RJ45 Class II: non- RJ45, 40 Gbps, 2000 MHz

      • Rated for data transfers 400 times faster than Cat5

      • In shielded only

  • Each type of UTP cable can be substituted for any category below it, but never for a category above.

  • Cat 5/5e/6/6a cables come with wires that have solid cores or stranded cores.

  • Use solid core cables for longer runs inside walls or the ceiling; use stranded wires for drop cables where flexibility and frequent movement occurs.

  • Always use a special crimping tool to attach connectors to UTP cable.

Twisted Pair Cable Rating

  • Direct burial: Designed to be