Comprehensive Private Pilot Study Guide: V-Speeds, Emergencies, and Regulations

V-Speeds and Airspeed Indicators

$V_{SO}$ (40\,\text{kts}): Stall speed in the landing configuration (with flaps).
$V_{S}$ (48\,\text{kts}): Stall speed in the clean configuration (no flaps).
$V_{R}$ (55\,\text{kts}): Rotate speed.
$V_{X}$ (62\,\text{kts}): Best angle of climb; used to gain the most altitude over a given horizontal distance.
$V_{G}$ (68\,\text{kts}): Best glide speed; the speed that provides the best glide ratio, determined via the drag curve.
$V_{Y}$ (74\,\text{kts}): Best rate of climb; used to gain the most altitude over a given period of time.
$V_{FE}$ (85--110\,\text{kts}): Maximum flaps extended speed. The range is specific: $110\,\text{kts}$ for the first $10^{\circ}$ and below $85\,\text{kts}$ for $20^{\circ}$ to $30^{\circ}$ of flaps.
$V_{A}$ (90--105\,\text{kts}): Design maneuvering speed. * Flying at or below $V_{A}$ ensures the airplane will stall before the structure is damaged by excessive loads. * Exceeding $V_{A}$ during a sudden gust or significant increase in load factor could lead to structural failure. * Weight Dependency: $V_{A}$ changes with weight; it decreases as aircraft weight decreases and increases as weight increases.
$V_{NO}$ (129\,\text{kts}): Maximum structural cruising speed. This is the highest speed safe for flight in smooth air and represents the upper limit of the green arc on the airspeed indicator.
$V_{NE}$ (163\,\text{kts}): Never exceed speed.

Emergency Memory Items and Procedures

General Rule: All emergencies require the sequence of Aviate, Navigate, Communicate first. If altitude and time permit, use the Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) to verify actions.
AP / Trim Comes On: 1. Grasp control wheel firmly. 2. Hold $AP$ DISC button. 3. Manually trim the elevator. 4. Pull the $AP$ fuse. 5. Release the $AP$ DISC button.
Cabin / Electrical Fire: 1. Master Switch: OFF. 2. Standby Battery: OFF. 3. Cabin HVAC: OFF. 4. Fire Extinguisher: ACTIVATE.
Wing Fire: 1. Taxi/Landing Lights: OFF. 2. Navigation Lights: OFF. 3. Strobe Lights: OFF. 4. Pitot Heat: OFF. 5. Perform a sideslip to keep flames away from the fuel tank/cabin.
Engine Fire During Start (Started): 1. Throttle: $1800\,\text{RPM}$ for $2\,\text{minutes}$ . 2. Engine Shutdown and inspect.
Engine Fire During Start (Not Started): 1. Starter: Continue cranking. 2. Throttle: FULL OPEN. 3. Mixture: IDLE CUTOFF. 4. Fuel Shutoff: FULL OUT. 5. Fuel Pump: OFF.
Engine Fire In Flight: 1. Mixture: IDLE CUTOFF. 2. Fuel Shutoff: FULL OUT. 3. Fuel Pump: OFF. 4. Master Switch: OFF. 5. Cabin Heat/Air: OFF. 6. Airspeed: $\geq 100\,\text{kts}$ . 7. Prepare for power-off landing.
Emergency Descent: 1. Throttle: IDLE. 2. Mixture: RICH. 3. Bank: $30^{\circ}$ to $45^{\circ}$ . 4. Airspeed: $129\,\text{kts}$ .
Inadvertent Icing: 1. Pitot Heat: ON. 2. Exit icing conditions immediately. 3. Cabin Heat: FULL OUT. 4. Defroster: OPEN. 5. Adjust cabin air.
Engine Failure (Before Liftoff): 1. Throttle: IDLE. 2. Brakes: APPLY. 3. Engine shutdown if required.
Engine Failure (After Liftoff): 1. Airspeed: $68\,\text{kts}$ . 2. Land straight ahead. 3. Engine shutdown if required.
Engine Failure (In Flight): 1. Airspeed: $68\,\text{kts}$ . 2. Landing Site: Pilot's option. 3. Fuel Selector: BOTH. 4. Mixture: RICH. 5. Fuel Shutoff: FULL IN. 6. Aux Fuel Pump: ON. 7. Magnetos: BOTH or START.
Spin Recovery Procedure (PARE): * P - Power Idle: Moving throttle to idle stops pitch-up forces and makes it easier to lower the nose. * A - Ailerons Neutral: Helps wings reach the same angle of attack, decreasing pitching and rolling moments. * R - Rudder Opposite: Breaks the rolling and yawing moment to stop the spin. * E - Elevator Forward: Decreases the angle of attack to end the stall. * Post-Recovery: Rudder neutral when rotation stops, level flight attitude, throttle as required.

Pilot Qualifications and Regulations

Flight Review ( $\S 61.56$ ): * Required every $24\,\text{calendar months}$ . * Minimum of $1\,\text{hour}$ ground and $1\,\text{hour}$ flight training. * Graded as satisfactory/unsatisfactory. * Can be performed by a CFI or DPE. * The clock resets if a new rating is earned.
Carrying Passengers ( $\S 61.57$ & $\S 91.1715$ ): * Requires $3$ takeoffs and $3$ landings within the preceding $90\,\text{days}$ in the same category, class, and type (if applicable). * Night Currency: $3$ takeoffs and $3$ landings to a full stop between $1\,\text{hour}$ after sunset and $1\,\text{hour}$ before sunrise. Night landings count for day currency, but not vice-versa. * Tailwheel Exception: All landings in a single-engine tailwheel must be to a full stop and count toward tricycle aircraft currency.
Student Pilot Limitations ( $\S 61.89$ ): * No passengers. * No carrying property for compensation or hire. * No flight in furtherance of a business. * No international flight. * Visibility minima: $3\,\text{SM}$ day, $5\,\text{SM}$ night. * Must have visual reference to the ground.
Required Documents: * Student: Driver's license, medical certificate, student pilot license, logbook with endorsements. * Private Pilot: Driver's license, medical certificate, pilot license.
Medical Certificates ( $\S 61.23$ ): * The certificate itself does not change, but the privileges do. * Example: A First Class medical for a pilot under $40$ maintains First Class privileges for $12\,\text{months}$ , then drops to Third Class privileges.
BasicMed: * Requires a U.S. driver's license and having held a medical after July 14, 2006. * Physical exam with a state-licensed physician every $48\,\text{calendar months}$ . * BasicMed medical education course every $2\,\text{years}$ . * Limitations: Aircraft max $7$ occupants, max takeoff weight $12,500\,\text{lbs}$ , max $6$ passengers, at or below $18,000\,\text{ft}$ MSL, max $250\,\text{kts}$ , no compensation/hire.

Airworthiness Requirements

Required Documents (SPARROW): * S: Supplements (G1000 Reference Guide). * P: Placards. * A: Airworthiness Certificate (valid as long as the aircraft is safe). * R: Registration (State: annually; Federal: every $7\,\text{years}$ ). * R: Radio Station License (required for international flight; valid $10\,\text{years}$ ). * O: POH (Aircraft specific). * W: Weight & Balance (Aircraft specific).
Aircraft Inspections (AAVIATES): * A: Airworthiness Directives (ADs) - Mandatory, like car recalls. * A: Annual ( $12\,\text{calendar months}$ ) - Performed by A&P with IA. * V: VOR ( $30\,\text{days}$ , IFR only). * I: $100\text{-hr}$ Inspection (Required if for hire/instruction). Can overfly by $10\,\text{hours}$ to reach maintenance; overfly time counts toward next interval. * A: Altimeter ( $24\,\text{calendar months}$ , IFR/Static system). * T: Transponder ( $24\,\text{calendar months}$ ). * E: ELT ( $12\,\text{calendar months}$ ; battery changed if $50\%$ life used or $1\,\text{hour}$ cumulative use). * S: Static System ( $24\,\text{calendar months}$ , for IFR).
Special Flight Permit (Ferry Permit): 1. Mechanic checks safety. 2. Contact FSDO. 3. Fly to maintenance base.
Inoperative Equipment ( $\S 91.213$ ): * Check MEL (Minimum Equipment List), $\S 91.205$ (ATOMATO FLAMES), KOEL (Kinds of Operation Equipment List), TCDS, and ADs. * If safe for flight: Write it up, disable/remove, and placard.

Weight and Balance

C172 Maximum Weights: * Ramp: $2558\,\text{lbs}$ . * Takeoff: $2550\,\text{lbs}$ . * Landing: $2550\,\text{lbs}$ .
Terms: * Datum: Reference point for arm measurement (firewall on C172). * Arm: Distance from the datum. * Moment: Angular force ( $\text{Arm} \times \text{Weight}$ ). * Center of Gravity (CG): Balance point. * Empty Weight: Aircraft plus unusable fluids/equipment. * Useful Load: Fuel, passengers, and cargo.
Effects of Weight & CG: * Weight: More weight requires more lift, which creates more induced drag and reduces performance. * Forward CG: Higher stability, higher stall speed, slower cruise speed (requires more tail-down force/high angle of attack). * Aft CG: Lower stability (harder to recover from stalls/spins), lower stall speed, higher cruise speed.

Performance and Calculations

Factors: Temperature (heat spreads molecules), Humidity (vapor displaces air), Density Altitude (performance altitude), Wind (headwinds preferred), and Runway surface (Grass/Slopes).
Pressure Altitude: $(29.92 - \text{Current Setting}) \times 1000 + \text{Field Elevation}$ . * Example: $(29.92 - 30.21) = -0.29; -0.29 \times 1000 = -290; -290 + 624 = 334\,\text{ft}$ .
Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature (Standard lapse rate: $2^{\circ}\text{C}$ per $1000\,\text{ft}$ ).

Human Factors

Hypoxia: Oxygen deficiency. 1. Hypoxic: Insufficient pressure at altitude. 2. Hypemic: Blood cannot carry $O_2$ (CO poisoning/anemia/blood loss). 3. Histotoxic: Cells cannot use $O_2$ (alcohol/drugs). 4. Stagnant: Blood flow restricted (G-forces).
Hyperventilation: Loss of carbon dioxide; symptoms include tingling and dizziness.
IMSAFE Checklist: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol ( $8\,\text{hours}$ , $0.04\% BA\text{C}$ , no hangovers), Fatigue, Emotions.

Principles of Flight and Airspace

Forces: Lift, Weight, Thrust, Drag. Straight and level: $\text{Lift} = \text{Weight}$ and $\text{Thrust} = \text{Drag}$ .
Left Turning Tendencies: 1. Torque: Prop spins right, plane rolls left. 2. P-Factor: Descending blade produces more thrust (at high angles of attack). 3. Gyroscopic Precession: Force felt $90^{\circ}$ ahead in rotation (pitch up causes right yaw; down causes left yaw). 4. Spiraling Slipstream: Air hits the left side of the tail.
Airspace Weather Minima (Standard $3,152$ ): * Class C, D, E (< 10,000 ft): $3\,\text{SM}$ visibility, $1000\,\text{ft}$ above, $500\,\text{ft}$ below, $2000\,\text{ft}$ horizontal. * Class B: $3\,\text{SM}$ visibility and clear of clouds. * Class G (< 1200 ft AGL): Day: $1\,\text{SM}$ , clear of clouds. Night: $3\,\text{SM}$ , $3,152$ .

Questions & Discussion

V-Speed Questions: 1. Why is there a difference between $V_{SO}$ and $V_S$ ? 2. Why do flaps decrease the stall speed? 3. Do we stall at the same speed every time? What about angle of attack? 4. What's the difference between $V_X$ and $V_Y$ ? When would we use $V_X$ ? 5. What is $V_G$ ? What is the glide ratio? How did they figure out $68\,\text{kts}$ is best glide? 6. What is induced drag? What causes it? 7. What is parasite drag? Three different types? 8. Why are there two different numbers for $V_{FE}$ ? 9. What is $V_A$ ? Is it a range? Why do we use it? When do we use it? 10. Can we go above $V_{NO}$ ? 11. Do we ever get close to $V_{NE}$ ? 12. What are all of the V-speeds on an airspeed indicator? 13. Why do we do all of these maneuvers at $95\,\text{kts}$ ? 14. What happens if you exceed $V_A$ ?
Emergency Questions: 1. Why do we pitch for $68\,\text{kts}$ in engine failure? 2. Why are we turning on the aux fuel pump in engine failure? 3. When we get into icing what are the options of getting out? 4. When would we use emergency descents? 5. Why do we bank in an emergency descent? Why do we go mixture rich? 6. For an engine fire in flight, why do mixture idle and mixture idle cutoff? Will both kill the fuel right? 7. During an engine fire we pitch for $100\,\text{kts}$ . Why? 8. What's the three step process when dealing with an emergency? 9. Engine fire during start, why do we keep cranking? 10. Why do we slip when we get a wing fire? 11. Why do we turn off the master and stby in an electrical/ cabin fire? 12. Would you try and restart the engine after an engine fire? 13. Can you use flaps after an engine fire?
Airworthiness Questions: 1. If one of the bulbs in the led landing light is out can we fly? 2. Which section is the KOEL? 3. If the plane is safe for flight can we jump in and start flying or do we have to do something first? 4. What do we have instead of fuses for night equipment? 5. Why is anti-collision light in both day and night versions of the checklist? 6. Why don't we need a manifold pressure gauge? 7. Who can do an annual? Can the annual be done instead of the $100\text{-hr}$ ? 8. Does the airworthiness certificate ever expire? 9. Who is responsible for determining airworthiness before a flight?