Comprehensive Study Notes: Late Medieval Religious Crises and the European Renaissance

Philosophical Principles and Late Medieval Religious Crises

• Ockham's Razor

  • Defined as the principle that the simpler explanation is more likely to be true than the harder or more complex option.

• Concept of Purgatory

  • Based on the religious doctrine that nobody is good enough to go straight to heaven, requiring a state of purification prior to salvation.

• The Great Schism of 1378

  • 1377: Pope Gregory XI moves the papacy back to Rome from Avignon.
  • 1378: Pope Urban VI is elected. His actions upset both the Cardinals and the French.
  • Election of Second Pope: A new Pope, Clemence VI, is elected, resulting in two popes ruling at the same time.
  • Council of Pisa (1408–1409): Attempted to resolve the conflict by renouncing both popes; however, this resulted in having three popes simultaneously.
  • Council of Constance (1414–1418): Successfully resolved the crisis by removing all three existing popes and returning the papacy back to a single pope.

• Religious Dissent, Reform, and Heresy

  • John Wycliffe (1330–1384)
  • Maintained anti-clerical views, emphasizing that salvation rested in true believers rather than corrupt priests.
  • His followers were known as the Lollards.
  • Advocated that believers need to be able to read the Bible themselves.
  • Hussites and Jan Hus (Bohemia)
  • Jan Hus advocated for equality for all individuals and communion for all laity.
  • His movements caused significant division across Bohemia.
  • Execution at the Council of Constance: Hus was invited to the Council of Constance to address the divisions in Bohemia, but the Holy Roman Empire leader, Emperor Sigismund, betrayed him and burned him at the stake.

The Emergence and Growth of Renaissance Humanism

• Socioeconomic and Political Context (14th–15th Century)

  • The 14th and 15th centuries were marked by political, religious, and economic/social crises, which were directly reflected in contemporary literature and art.
  • The Revival of the Historical Past occurred between the period of $1400$ and $1600$.
  • Key values included Latin and Greek knowledge, language, rhetoric, poetry, philosophy, and the education of civilians, including women.
  • Originated in Italian city-states due to high urbanization, which created an abundance of money and practical opportunities.
  • Florence vs. Milan
  • Florence was led by the Medicci family, who acquired their immense riches through banking. Florence was built on trade.
  • Milan was heavily reliant on agriculture.

• Core Ideologies of Humanism

  • Humanism: Rooted in classical Greco-Roman texts, serving as a method to couple ancient texts with modern Christianity and the Middle Ages in order to transition out of the Dark Ages.
  • Christian Humanism: Teaches that following God can coexist with living a life dedicated to achieving non-spiritual accomplishments.
  • 15th Century Civic Humanism: Introduced the idea that individuals become of greater use to their city-state when classical texts are actively read and applied.
  • Leonardo Bruni (1370–1444): Exemplified civic humanism through a blend of political power and literacy/philosophy; referred to as the "New Cicero".
  • Patronism (Patronage): System where wealthy individuals or families purchased art and literature.
  • Cosimo de Medicci established the Platonic Academy.
  • Ficine worked as a translator for the Platonic Academy.
  • Neo-Platonism: Focused on answering difficult philosophical questions using concepts of human dignity, fully aligned with Christian ideas.
  • Hermeticism: Stressed the concept of pantheism, holding that everything is God and everything is divine.
  • Gionardo Bruno: Preached the concept of an endless universe and was ultimately burned at the stake for denying the Holy Trinity.

• Major Humanist Authors and Figures

  • Francis Patrarch (1304–1374)
  • Considered the father of humanism; lived in Italy and Avignon.
  • Highly influenced by classical texts and articulated the concept of the Babylonian Capture.
  • Authored the book On the Solitary Life.
  • Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
  • A prominent Christian Humanist who authored $100$ theses (also referenced in connection to his $900$ theses) detailing his thoughts on the Old Testament and how Plato and Aristotle support Christianity.
  • Initiated this debate through his text, Oration on the Dignity of Man, which argued that because of God, humanity's potential is completely unlimited.
  • Christine de Pisan (1365–1430)
  • Widowed writer who earned her living by writing for money.
  • Wrote The Book of the City of Ladies, in which she actively defends women; recognized as the first feminist.
  • Vernacular Literature
  • Boccaccio: Authored the Decameron, a narrative telling the story of $10$ young kids fleeing Florence during the Black Plague.
  • Chaucer: English author who wrote the Canterbury Tales (set during a pilgrimage in Canterbury around $1480-1500$), focusing on stories meant for entertainment.

• The Gutenberg Printing Press

  • Developed in the $1450\text{s}$, with the first press established by Gutenberg around $1440$ in the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) and Germany.

Renaissance Art, Architecture, and Music

• General Artistic Characteristics

  • Classically inspired by Greco-Roman tradition, alongside lingering Medieval influences.
  • Expressed a positive, worldly shift toward realistic representations of life and culture.

• Architectural Developments

  • Characterized by geometric and classic forms, utilizing Greco-Roman ($G.R.$) features such as columns and arches.
  • Santa Maria Novella Cathedral: Remade during the Renaissance by Leon Battista Alberti to give it a modern, Greco-Roman appearance.
  • Maso Di Bartolomeo ($1406-1456$): Designed agoural open spaces; maintained an old Roman style utilizing classic columns and arches.
  • Filippo Brunelleschi: Finished the Duomo il Firenze in Florence, constructing a massive dome that required incredibly difficult math.

• Renaissance Music

  • Focused on religious themes and poetry, designed to express emotion and feeling.
  • Josquin des prez (c. $1450-1521$): Famous Renaissance musician, celebrated for the composition Ave Maria Gratia Plena.

• Early Renaissance Sculpture and Painting

  • Emphasized the masculine ideal and human form in realistic detail, alongside natural portraits and linear perspective.
  • Lorenzo Ghiberti (c. $1378-1455$): Created the North End Doors (c. $1422$) of the Florence Baptistry of St. John, depicting the sacrificing of Issaic.
  • Sandro Botticelli: Painted Birth of Venus ($1484-1486$), where Venus stands for humanism and a Platonic, classical ideal.
  • Masaccio ($1401-1428$): Florentine painter who created Tribute Money ($1425$) in the Brancacci Chapel. The plaster artwork is structured in three parts and utilizes a vanishing point to attract the viewer's eyes directly to Jesus.
  • Donatello: Sculpted David in the $1440\text{s}$, representing the first naked statue created since the Medieval Ages; allegorically represented Italy as David and the Pope as Goliath.

High Renaissance and Northern Renaissance Movement

• The High Renaissance ($1480-1520$)

  • Leonardo de Vinci ($1452-1519$)
  • The ultimate "Renaissance man" due to his ability to perform many different disciplines extremely well.
  • The Last Supper ($1495-1498$): In the painting, Jesus is structured as an equilateral triangle, and his head framed in the window functions like a halo, whereas everything outside represents chaos.
  • The Mona Lisa ($1503$): Famous portrait that was later stolen in the $20\text{th}$ century.
  • Raphael ($1483-1520$)
  • Designed a room in the Pope's castle dedicated to $4$ branches of life (one allocated per wall).
  • The wall dedicated to philosophy contains the fresco School of Athens, featuring ancient philosophers such as Plato and Socrates.
  • Michelangelo
  • Painted the Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel ($1508-1512$).
  • Architectural work on St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.
  • Sculpted the Pieta ($1498-1499$), carved out of a single piece of marble depicting Mary holding dead Jesus.
  • Sculpted David ($1504$) located in Florence.

• The Northern Renaissance

  • Located primarily in the Low Countries (the Netherlands area).
  • Distinct from Italian art by focusing heavily on minute detail rather than grand spatial scale.
  • Pioneer of refined oil painting techniques.
  • Jan van Eyck
  • Painted Virgin Mary & Chancellor Nicolas Rolin (c. $1433$).
  • Painted the Arnolfini Portrait ($1434$), an oil on wood painting exemplifying how rich individuals began purchasing detailed art strictly to use as home decorations.
  • Albrecht Durer ($1471-1528$)
  • Created Adoration of the Magi using oil on wood.
  • Successfully combined Northern Naturalism with Italian linear perspective.